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Creosoted Timber 



ITS PREPARATION AND 
USES. 



Norfolk Creosoting Co. 

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA, 
U. S. A. 



E. A. BUELL, President. 
WARNER MILLER, Vice-President. 
EDMUND CHRISTIAN, General Manager. 
LOUIS CHABLE, Secretary. 



The present annual consumption of timber for industrial 

purposes in the United States is about 40,000,000 000 feet B. M. There is, at 
this date, not more than 21,300,000,000,000 feet B. M. of standing timber, or 
less than sixty years' supply. This does not account for firewood or for the 
timber burned in annual forest fires. Of the coniferous growth the stand- 
ing supply in the Eastern States will not last more than about sixteen years, 
at the present rate of cut ; and the supply on the Pacific Coast will not 
lengthen this period more than thirty years. — Forest Statistics for the United 
States, 1898. 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE HEYWOODS 

PHILADELPHIA, 
1900. 




TA42 

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PREFACE. 



Frequent allusions are made by ancient writers to vari- 
ous substances employed for the preservation of timber 
and other vegetable fibre from decay. Tar and pitch were 
used for the preservation of the statue of Zeus by Phidias 
which stood in a grove at Olympus. The platform upon 
which it stood was painted at regular periods with a bitu- 
minous oil. The statue of Diana at Ephesus was of wood ; 
even if its origin was miraculous, miracles were not relied 
upon for its preservation, as Pliny asserts upon the authority 
of Mucianus that the statue was kept saturated with the 
Oil of Nard, which was much alike the Dead Oil of Coal Tar 
of modern commerce. 

Of all the methods employed by the human race for the 
preservation of organic substances, there are perhaps none 
which have been as good as those employed by the ancient 
Egyptians. The results of their processes have lasted 
through centuries and have absolutely proved the value of 
antiseptics for the preservation of animal and vegetable 
matter. When Pettigrew succeeded in withdrawing by 
maceration the preservative from the heart of a mummy 
embalmed three thousand years before, the heart at once 
began to putrify ; a striking proof of the efficacy of the sub- 
stances employed for its preservation, and that the im- 
munity from decay was not due to an absolute chemical 
transformation. 

The Naphthalene of Dead Oil is to modern wood preserva- 
tion what the Oil of Bitumen was to the preservation of 
animal matter, and it is of these important processes that the 
Norfolk Creosoting Company speaks through the pages of 
this book to those whose interests make wooden structures 
desirable. The processes described represent the best 
modern practice in America and Europe, as developed and 
elaborated since Dead Oil of Coal Tar came into use as a 
timber preservative. 



CREOSOTED TIMBER— ITS PREPA- 
RATION AND USES- 

THE DESTRUCTIVE TEREDO. 

Many who are familiar with the name and destructive 
work of the teredo, or ship- worm, are ignorant of that 
mollusk's history, of the method of its construction, and of 
the principles involved in its operations. The following es- 
say, compiled from various sources, on this bivalve covers the 
ground in a manner that will, perhaps, prove satisfactory 
alike to scientific and unscientific inquirers. 

The teredo may have been hatched from one of a million 
eggs from the same parent. In the earliest period of its 
active life it is a free swimmer ; its body is at that time al- 
most if not entirely contained within a bivalve shell ; it has 
eyes, and it has what is called a foot, a soft, muscular mem- 
ber projecting slightly from the body ; it is also provided 
with two siphon tubes, side by side and opening in the same 
direction, through one of which it takes in food and water 
and through the other it ejects its waste. At this stage of its 
existence the teredo may be no bigger than a pin^s head ; it 
may not be so big. While it is still of this diminutive size 
it attaches itself by means of its foot to whatever wood it may 
encounter, perhaps to a pile, and it begins at once to bore. 
How the teredo bores, whether with its foot or with its 
shell, is not absolutely known. The hole it makes is ex- 
tremely small, like the animal itself ; but once inside the 
teredo begins to grow rapidly, increasing the size of its hole 
along with its own growth in a cone-shaped enlargement un- 
til it has attained its size, after which the hole or burrow is 
continued at a substantially uniform diameter. The tere- 
do's eyes now disappear j it has no further use for them^, for 



8 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

it spends the remainder, and by far the greater part, of its 
life within the wood. 

The picture here given was drawn from a teredo removed 
from the wood in which it was boring. One valve or half 
of the teredo's shell is here shown ; there is a corresponding 
half upon the other side of the body. The teredo's foot is 
at this end of the body, at the opening in front between the 
two valves of the shell. The teredo's body, including its 
vital parts, is still almost wholly contained within the limits 
of its shell, as in its earlier youth it was contained almost, 
if not entirely ; the rest of the now greatly elongated teredo, 
and much the greater part of its length, from a point a 
little distance back of its shell to the other extremity, is in 
reality but the skinny covering of the teredo's now greatly 
elongated siphon tubes. In appearance, however, this is all 



A Little Teredo Navalis, about actual size. 

the body of the teredo, which has grown greatly, while the 
shell, though it has grown greatly, too, seems relatively to 
have grown but little ; it does not now seem to be the shell 
of the mollusk, but a very small, thin and curiously formed 
shell attached to the mollusk's head. At the teredo's other 
extremity there are two small, thin, double-pointed shelly 
projections, extending out parallel with each other and at 
a little distance apart, which are called stylets or pallets. 

These parts of the teredo's siphon tubes that remain 
within the body or skinny covering are joined together ; the 
parts that are thrust out beyond the body, the ends of the 
tubes, are divided, and these it puts forth between the stylets. 
If the teredo is alarmed it draws in its siphons, and if it is 
sought out in its burrow by some sharp-toothed enemy it 
closes the sharp-pointed pallets together over its siphon tubes 
to protect them. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES y 

There are many varieties of the teredo. The shells and 
stylets, which vary more or less in shape, are among their 
distinguishing marks. The picture shows a small Teredo 
navalis, A water-soaked twig containing a living teredo is 
illustrated here at about its actual size. 

The curved tubes that appear above the highest point of 
the branch are the siphon tubes of the teredo, which is 
inside the wood below and boring downward ; along the up- 




Showing the Teredo's Siphon Tubes. 



per side of the branch are the shells of dead barnacles. The 
teredo, from shells to stylets, is probably somewhere between 
an inch and a quarter and two inches in length. Its longer 
siphon tube, the intake tube, is sometimes extended in the 
water clear of the wood for a length of an inch and three 
quarters ; the shorter or outflow tube may then be extended 
to a length of half an inch. The teredo's longer tube, how- 
ever, is more likely to be extended about an inch clear of 
the wood, with the shorter pipe correspondingly shorter. 
The tubes vary in diameter also from time to time, their 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 11 

thickness ranging from one thirty-second to three sixty- 
fourths of an inch. In color they are of a milky white. 

The tubes, especially the longer one, are pretty nearly 
always in motion. The long tube is swayed here and there 
in the water, sometimes quickly, oflener more slowly, and 
sometimes with an undulating movement like that with 
which an elephant at times sways its trunk. The long 
tube may be extended at a right angle as seen in the picture, 
or it may be extended almost straight down along the branch, 
or it may be bent over in the direction opposite to that in 
which it here appears, or it may be pointing straight up, with, 
it may be, one or two slight curves in it, but it is usually more 
or less in motion, and more or less curved. The end of this 
tube appears sometimes like the smooth opening of an ordi- 
nary pipe ; sometimes it has a regularly notched saw-tooth 
edge, reminding the observer of the ornamental crown piece 
on the top of the smokestack of a Western river steamer ; 
sometimes it looks as though a jog had been cut in the end, 
the pipe being sawed through for half its diameter and the 
part so sawed split away from the end, the projecting lap 
thus left folding over the opening to close the pipe when 
the teredo wishes to close it. Sometimes the pipe has a little 
shoulder in it all around close to the end, the extreme end 
section or tip of the pipe then being uniformly smaller than 
the rest ; sometimes when closed the pipe is pointed, like 
the smaller pipe as seen in the picture. 

The teredo does not eat the wood which it bores ; it feeds 
on infusoria, most minute forms of animal life, which it 
draws into its intake tube as it sweeps the tube about, or 
which it takes perhaps from the surface of the w^ood in 
which it is boring. The teredo can produce a vacuum in 
its in-current tube, causing a current to lead to it in the 
waters without, and so enabling it to control for its supply 
a greater body of water than it could actually reach. Hav- 
ing taken in a supply of food, the in- current tube is closed 
and the food is carried to the stomach ; the surplus water 
and the waste are carried off through the outflow tube. 

While the teredo thus supplies itself with food it works 



12 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

away at its boring below, sending up the bored -out material 
through its outflow tube and discharging it into the water. 
Under ordinary conditions these borings are dissipated ; in 
motionless water the borings fall almost straight to the 
bottom, from whatever point in the water at which the 
momentum imparted to them in throwing them out ceased. 

The teredo moves its outflow tube about in different 
directions as it does its inflow tube, so that the borings are 
thrown in various directions. The upper sides of the nearer 
barnacle shells and the end of the little branch are covered 
with a fine debris from the teredo's excavations. The teredo 
has its periods of rest and of greater or less activity. AVhen 
working slowly it throws up its borings in very minute 
irregular shaped fragments ; when working more rapidly it 
often throws its borings up in what look like eight-inch 
long or shorter sections of fine brown thread, the color being 
that of the wood, the form resulting perhaps from the com- 
pacting together into apparently one piece before delivery 
of many of the minute particles such as it at other times 
delivers separately. 

Almost immediately upon beginning its boring in the 
wood, the teredo begins to line the hole it bores from a 
secretion of its own with a substance that forms a thin, limy 
shell, or tube, attached to the walls of the hole. The teredo 
extends this lining forward as it bores, and when it has 
gone as far as it intends to go, it extends the thin, shelly 
lining around in the rounded end of the boring, thus com- 
pleting it. 

There is printed herewith, at a little more than its actual 
size, a picture of a fragment of wood split from a branch 
w^hich had been bored by small teredos, showing longitudi- 
nal sections of two borings, and showing in the upper of the 
two borings a small portion remaining of the thin, shelly 
lining. 

The habit of the teredo, after it once gets inside the wood, 
is to bore with the grain. It never bores into its neighbor's 
burrow, though it may bore exceedingly close to it ; it never 
crosses another burrow in search of solid wood ; it never 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



13 



bores out to the surface again. The teredo is highly con- 
tractile. Sometimes when it has bored as far as it can go 
and retain its communication with the water by means of 
its siphons, which is essential to its existence, it contracts 
to half its length and starts a boring at almost a right angle 
with its previous boring, continuing in that direction until 
it is far enough away to clear the previous boring, and then 
starting along the grain again in the same direction as at 
first. 




Fragments of a Split Twig, showing Longitudinal Section of Teredo's 

Burrows. 



In Northern waters the teredo attains a length of three or 
four inches and more, sometimes ten inches ; there are 
some species in these waters, however, that are smaller than 
any here described. In tropical waters the teredo commonly 
attains a length of ten inches, and there are teredos that 
grow to be six feet long. 

The teredo attacks wharves, boats, fish-net stakes, any 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 15 

wood under water that is unprotected. The holes made by 
the teredos in the outside of the wood are so small that they 
may be unnoticed, while inside the wood may be honey- 
combed. A pile, for example, the teredos might attack all 
the way up from the bottom to the high water line. Such a 
stick might be fair upon the outside and yet be easily broken 
off by a slight shock from a boat swaying against it, and 
then be discovered to be perforated with borings in its 
whole diameter. 



CREOSOTE'S SCIENTIFIC STANDING. 

DEAD OIL OF COAL TAR UNIFORMLY SUCCESSFUL. 

Many years of experiment have proved that no process, 
calculated for the preservation of timber, can hope for success 
unless it replaces the liquid and semi-liquid portions of the 
wood with a substance that is insoluble and nonvolatile, 
and under the conditions which obtain in each particular 
case. 

Four substances approximate this requirement. Dead 
Oil of Coal Tar, usually called " Creosote,'' a distillate of 
the volatile portion of the bituminous coals ; Chlorid of 
Zinc, Sulphate of Copper, and Bichlorid of Mercury. All 
of these have violent toxic effects when exhibited in the 
presence of organic bodies, and all are within reach com- 
mercially. Each of them appropriately applied by the 
methods known respectively as the Bethell Dead Oil of Cdal 
Tar Process, familiarly called Creosoting ; Burnettizing, Zinc 
Chlorid Process ; Margaryizing, Sulphate of Copper Process, 
and Kyanizing, Bichlorid of Mercury Process, have had a 
more or less extended use. Only one of these processes, 
Creosoting, has proven uniformly and universally successful, 
it meeting all the conditions of exposure to which structural 
timber is subjected. The remaining three, while good as 
antiseptic treatment, are quite unlike Creosoting in that 



16 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

the conglomerates are very soluble in water, even at normal 
temperature, and so in a comparatively short time dis- 
appear under the influence of the moisture of the surround- 
ings. The preserving liquid being replaced by water it is 
but a step to the setting up of fermentative action and dete- 
rioration. The Beth ell, or '' Creosoting '^ Process, as a timber 
preservative has been uniformly successful from its inception 
in 1836. For some years the apparatus used was from neces- 
sity crude and primitive, but as the demand for artificially 
preserved wood increased from year to year, the methods of 
its preparation were more and more refined and perfected, 
until, at the present day, the manufacturer can guarantee a 
product as certain in its quality and uniformity as that of 
any other industrial works. 

While the conditions controlling the use of artificially 
preserved wood are those that influence the choice of any 
other building material, it can be laid down as a cardinal 
principle, that for all structural purposes to which wood is 
applicable, artificially preserved timber is, for economic 
reasons, in every way superior to the natural product. There 
are varying circumstances which indicate special treatment 
to meet individual cases. As Creosoting, or Dead Oil of 
Coal Tar Process, properly conducted does not alter the 
elastic limit or afiect the ultimate strength of the natural 
wood, it follows that those varieties of timber which are 
suitable for structural purposes, save only that they quickly 
decay, have, by this means, their only defect made good. 

Woods of uniform texture, with straight, open grain and 
average rapid growth, are, as a rule, high in ultimate strength 
and elastic limit. Such woods are especially well adapted to 
the processes of artificial preservation. The sameness of the 
growth and the uniformity of the cell structure make it 
practicable to carry on the preliminary seasoning steps 
rapidly, and at a very low temperature. The timber thus 
prepared thoroughly absorbs the antiseptic qualities and 
turns out a material of certain uniformity and excellence. 

All woods are more or less adapted for the processes of 
artificial preservation, the difference lying in the time and 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 17 

methods required for the several steps of the process. The 
more dense and fine-grained varieties require a longer time 
than the coarser varieties for the preliminary seasoning, and 
for the actual impregnation with the preserving liquid. The 
hardest and most dense woods may be thoroughly impreg- 
nated with the antiseptic, however. 

The Dead Oil of Coal Tar used for preserving timber in 
the process known as ** Creosoting," is a product of the dis- 
tillation of coal tar, a byproduct from the manufacture of 
illuminating gas. In reference to their volatility, the dis- 
tillates of coal tar arrange themselves into three groups : 
The Naphthas, Dead Oil of Coal Tar, and Pitch. The first 
group being very volatile, at ordinary temperatures, and con- 
taining no substances of an antiseptic nature, have no value 
for creosoting purposes. The third, being composed of sub- 
stances which, while of strong antiseptic qualities, and quite 
insoluble and nonvolatile at normal temperature, are, never- 
theless, unavailable on account of the high temperatures 
necessary for their manipulation. The second group includes 
all those constituents of coal tar which are essential for 
the preservation of timber, by the Creosoting or Dead Oil of 
Coal Tar Process. Generally speaking, these substances are 
either *' acids" or ''bases,'' and belong to the Hydrocarbon 
Compounds, or to the Nitrogenized Compounds of the coal 
tar derivatives. 

The table on page 19 lists those constituents of Dead Oil of 
Coal Tar which are known to Lave a more or less important 
part in the process. 






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ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



19 



TABJLE No. 1. 

I>EAD OIL. OF COAL. TAK COMPOUNDS, 

USED FOR THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 



Name. 



Hydrocarbon Compounds, 
Acids. 

Naphthalene 

Di-hyd . . 

'' a, Methyl . 

b, '' 

Di, '' 

'' Tetrahyd . 

Anthracene. Dihyd . . 

" Hexahyd . 

Phenanthrene 

Fluoranthrene 

Retene 

nitrogenized compounds, 
Bases. 

Pyridine ....... 

Picoline 

Lutidine 

Collidine 

Coridine 

Rubidine 

Viridine 

QuiNOLiNE Series. 

Leucoline 

Isquinoline 

Quinaldine ... ... 

Indoline . 

Cryptidine ....... 

Acridine 



Symbol. 



CioHg 

CioHjo 

C'liHio 
CijHio 
C11H12 
C10H12 
C14H12 
C14H16 

C'l4Hio 
C15H10 



C5 H5 N 

Ce H, N 
Cy H9 N 
Cs HiiN 
C10H15N 
CiiH,,N 
Ci^Hi^N 



C9 H7 N 
C9 H7 N 
C10H9 N 
C10H9 N 



Fuses. 



79° 
Liquid. 

32.5° 
Liquid. 

u 

106° 

63° 
100° 
109° 

99° 



Liquid. 



Liquid, 

18° 
Liquid. 



Ill* 



Vaporizes. 



218° 
200° 
242° 
242° 
262° 
190° 
305° 
290° 
340° 

360°; 

350° 



116.7° 

135° 

152° 

170° 

211° 

230° 

251° 



240° 
236° 
243° 
252° 

274° 

360°; 



20 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

In addition to the substances listed in the preceding table 
are a number of compounds of strong antiseptic qualities 
which but for their solubility or volatility would be of 
great value. Of these the Phenol (known commercially 
as Carbolic Acid), and the Cresols are especially worthy of 
note. To them was ascribed for a long time the merit of 
Dead Oil of Coal Tar as a preservative of vegetable fibre, 
the theory being that the exhibition of these substances, 
having caused the coagulation of the albuminoids of the 
tissues, rendered them indestructible. It is a cardinal prin- 
ciple that a timber preservative must inherently possess the 
properties that it is to impart to the tissue that it is intended 
to preserve. It is a matter of common knowledge that the 
phenols and cresols are quite volatile at normal temperature 
and that they, as well as their compounds, are very unstable. 
The success of the Dead Oil of Coal Tar Process owes its 
virtue to the presence of insoluble non-volatile substances 
indifferent to the attacks of oxidation or putrefaction, under 
the conditions to which its product is normally exposed. 
Of these substances, by far the most abundant are the Naph- 
thalene compounds (see Table 1), which occur in commercial 
dead oil of coal tar to the extent of from thirty to sixty per 
cent, by weight. Naphthalene proper, the most abundant 
of the series, is in its pure state a white substance in the 
form of closely adhering rhomboidal ci*ystals. It fuses 
at 79° C. and vaporizes at 212-220. Its specific gravity is 
0.9778 at its boiling point. It is insoluble in cold water; spar- 
ingly so in hot ; it is slightly volatile at normal temperatures. 
Commercial Naphthalene has a pungent odor and acrid taste, 
due to the presence of a small portion of Leucoline, a sub- 
stance belonging to the Nitrogenized derivatives of the coal 
tar series. Naphthalene Dihydride and Naphthalene Tetra- 
hydride have more of the characteristics of Naphthalene, 
the difference being a higher vaporizing point and a much 
lower fusing point, with less volatility, at normal tempera- 
tures. 

Associated with the above are the compounds of the 
Methyl Naphthalene series a and b, which are liquid at 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 21 

ordinary temperatures, strongly antiseptic, insoluble in water 
and non- volatile at usual temperatures. The inertness of 
the compounds of the Naphthalene series, under such con- 
ditions as obtain in the usual range of timber construction ; 
the comparatively low temperatures required for their man- 
ipulation, their marked i)hysical advantages, coupled with 
the fact that they form a very considerable percentage of 
commercial Dead Oil of Coal Tar, class them among the most 
useful and available of all the dead oil constituents, for the 
artificial preservation of organic tissue. Anthracene Dihy- 
dride, Anthracene Hexahydride — the former fusing at 106 
and vaporizing at 305° C. and the latter fusing at 63 
and vaporizing at * 90° C— are the next of the Hydro- 
carbons occurring in sufficient quantities to be worthy of 
mention. Both are insoluble in water and are non-volatile 
and liquid at allowable temperatures. They strongly par- 
take of the physical characteristics of the Naphthalene 
compounds, are strongly toxic in the presence of organic 
life, and form an intimate mechanical mixture with those 
substances. 

Of the liitrogenized derivatives of Coal Tar, the Pyridine 
series furnishes several very stable compounds which are 
liquid at available, and insokible and non-volatile at normal 
temperatures. Their physical characteristics are such as to 
admit of a very close mechanical combination with the sub- 
stances of the Hydrocarbon derivatives. The Quinoline 
series includes the most important of the purely antiseptic 
constituents of the dead oil of coal tar. All, except the 
Acridine, are liquids of an exceedingly high boiling point; 
all are nearly, or quite, insoluble in water and are non-vola- 
tile, and all mix readily and closely with the several substances 
heretofore mentioned. The particular ingredients above 
described are those only which, from their known physical 
and chemical properties, are recognized as having an im- 
portant office in the Dead Oil of Coal Tar Process. That 
there are other series quite as valuable associated with them 
is not to be doubted ; the (exceedingly fertile field of the 
coal tar derivatives not as yet having been fully explored. 



22 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

The question of the applicability of artificially preserved 
timber to any specific use is, of course, almost entirely a 
commercial one. Whether a larger first cost, in order to 
secure a longer life, is warranted, depends upon the condi- 
tions which obtain in each particular instance. Generally 
speaking, structures are intended for all time. The selection 
of a material, meeting all the requirements of daily use, and 
least affected by the destructive agencies to which it is sub- 
jected, is the most economical, save only that the interest 
on the first cost shall not exceed the expense of periodic 
renewal with a less durable and less costly material, plus 
the expenditure due interference by reason of such renewal 
with the current uses of the structure. Creosoted timber, 
having all the advantages of ease of manipulation and 
adaptability to the endless variety of structural require- 
ments possessed by it in its natural state is, within the 
range of its applicability, the ideal structural material. Its 
first cost being its only cost, the building once erected is 
finished so far as material is concerned. For all classes of 
marine construction it is the only material satisfying all the 
conditions of durability and adaptability. Absolutely proof 
against the attacks of every species of animal life, and wholly 
inert in the presence of the most active oxidizing agencies 
of seawater, it offers all the advantages of a timber construc- 
tion without its susceptibility to the assaults of teredo and 
limnoria, and all of the advantages of a metal construction 
without the high first cost and the considerable fixed charges 
due the maintenance of that class of structure. The quali- 
ties which fit creosoted timber for marine construction are 
exactly those which adapt it to every variety of structure 
exposed to atmospheric action, including the most trying of 
all conditions to which wood is subjected — the alternate 
wetting and drying of the interior of electrical and other 
subways, 

Plate 1 represents a seawall, or bulkhead, 1,800 feet long, 
ten feet high above mean low water, protecting the rail ap- 
proach to one of the largest tidewater coaling stations in the 
United States. This construction is of creosoted sheet-piling 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



23 



driven in one row, four inches thick, supported at the top 
by two wharf-logs— a part of the structure as originally 
built. There is no support to the bottom, the slight depth 
of water making this unnecessary. This bulkhead was first 
constructed of untreated w^hite oak on the same plan as at 
present, except that it was supported at the bottom with a 
row of round logs, bolted through to the bearing piles 
which supported the superstructure as first erected. At the 




Plate 1. 



expiration of five years the teredo had so destroyed the 
sheet-piling and the bottom support that it was necessary to 
rebuild the bulkhead. This was done with creosoted sheet- 
piling ten years ago. At this time the creosoted timber is 
as good as when first put in. 

Plate 2 represents a retaining wall ten feet high above low 
water, composed of a double row of three-inch sheet piling, 
the front one of creosoted timber and the back one of unr 



24 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



treated wood. The sheet piling is supported at the top by 
a double wharf-log of untreated wood and at the bottom by a 
single piece of creosoted 6x8 timber, the whole supported 
by a round creosoted pile every eight feet, tied back to an 
untreated one, driven approximately twelve feet behind the 
bulkhead, and covered by the earth behind. The expecta- 
tion that the front row of creosoted sheeting would be able 



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Plate 2. 



to carry the load by the time that the back one of untreated 
timber had decayed, has been fully realized and the struc- 
ture is a good example of a substantial and durable construc- 
tion at a minimum cost. 

Plate 3 represents an excellent type of modern practice in 
the construction of closed piers in deep water. The bulk- 
head is made up of two rows of piling, the front one being 
of round creosoted piles, driven in a close row, and sup- 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



25 




V .4 



L. 









i!iililiitf«ii*:# 



Plate 



ported at the top by two longitudinals, between ^vhich are 
dovetailed the tie-logs extending across the pier. Back of 
this is driven a sheet- pile bulkhead consisting of two rows 
of three-inch plank, the front row of creosoted, and the back 










*♦*•>* 




Plate 4. 



row of untreated timber. This bulkhead is supported at 
low w^ater by a single longitudinal of creosoted 6x8 timber 
secured to the round piles forming the front row. For rea- 



26 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



sons of immediate economy the apron surrounding this 
pier was constructed of charred cypress piles. At tlie end 
of seven years it became necessary to rebuild it on account 
of the failure of the piling, which was so destroyed by the 
teredo as to be unfit for further use. 




Plate 5. 

Plate 4 represents cross-sections of the creosoted and 
charred cypress piles'used in the construction of the pier a 
portion of which is shown in Plate 3. These specimens are 




Plate 6. 



taken from the materials used in the original construction 
and very well represent the status of the two classes of 
material at the expiration of seven years' exposure to the 
action of the teredo in Norfolk harbor. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



27 







mmmmmsMm. 








^H 


i^^^^M 



Plate 7. 

Plate 5 represents another example of the futility of 
charring timber for its protection against marine insects. 
This stick is from a charred cypress pile— a part of the pier 
before mentioned. The extraordinarily bad condition is 
probably due to the fact that more or less of the char was 
torn off in the work of driving through the unavoidable 




I late 8. 



28 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



scraping of the sling chains, handsticks, etc., and the rabbing 
against the '' ways " of the piledriver. 

Plates 6 and 7 represent a sheet-pile bulkhead, forming 




Plate 9. 



a retaining wall and lumber wharf along a canal. The con- 
struction is simple, consisting of a single row of creosoted 
plank four inches thick, supported at the top by a longi- 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



29 




Plate 10. 



tudinal carried on creosoted round piles in front of the 
sheet pihng, and spaced eight feet apart. The entire struc- 
ture is tied to an anchor-log, located well back in the bank, 
by logs dovetailed into the longitudinal at suitable intervals. 




-•^^ 




Plate 11.— Sections of Underground Creosoted Conduits. 



30 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



While this bulkhead has been entirely satisfactory, it is 
open to criticism, in that the top longitudinal might have 
been a creosoted 6x6, instead of an untreated 12x12, the 




Plate 12.— Underground Creosoted Conduits in Use. 

former costing but three-fourths as much as the latter, and 
lasting four times as long. The wooden ties might have 
been of iron at a less cost and much greater life. 



ITS PREPARATION AKD USES 31 

Plate 8 represents non-creosoted white oak cross-ties 
at the expiration of eight years' service ; while Plate 9 de- 
lineates the only usage to which they were put. 

Plate 10 shows a creosoted terminal or distributing pole, for 
collecting and conveying to the subway the various electrical 
conductors of a " district." Such poles, either rectangular 
or octagon, are rapidly coming into favor as the cheapest 
and in every way the most desirable for this purpose. 

Plate 12 shows a subway of creosoted wood tubing. It 
is an inexpensive construction and one that is permanent, 
easily laid, and is less liable to injury from settlement of 
the surrounding earth than any form of masonry or tiled 
conduit. 

Plate 11 presents a detail of the tubing. In this connec- 
tion the following letter may be of interest: 

NORFOLK CREOSOTING CO., 
Norfolk, Va. 

Gentlemen:— 'Replying to your inquiry regarding my experience willi 
creosoted wooden conduits in the telephone service, I beg to say that this 
company, The New York and New Jersey Telephone Company, has in use 
several million of feet of wooden duct treated with twelve pounds of dead 
oil of coal tar per cubic foot by the vacuum process at your works at 
Norfolk, Va. 

The first creosoted duct conduit used by this company was laid in 
Brooklyn, N. Y., in November, 1884, fifteen years ago, and upon recent ex- 
amination the material showed no evidence whatever of any deterioration 
in the fibre of the wood. 

Creosoted conduits referred to have been placed in the various soils en- 
countered throughout the territory of this company, with entirely satis- 
factory results. Very truly yours, 

J. C. REILLY, 

General Superintendent. 

The plates on page 32 represent a creosoted wood-paving 
block after eighteen years' service, and a first-class granite 
block under the same volume of traffic, after nine years' 
use. 









Creosoted Wood compared with Granite Paving Block. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 33 

CREOSOTED TIMBER. 

The Norfolk Creosoting Company's Method of Preserv- 
ing Wood from the Mollusks and the Elements. 

The preservation of timber by the Dead Oil of Coal Tar 
process, as carried on by all well-equipped creosoting plants, 
consists of two distinct operations — the preparation of the 
wood, and its impregnation with the preservative. The 
preparation of the w^ood necessary for the proper reception 
of the preserving substances is the removal of all those por- 
tions of the tissue which are subject to fermentative action. 
This consists of the extraction of the liquids and semi-liquids 
occupying the interfibrous spaces, and constituting the very 
immature portions of the wood, without softening the cement 
binding of the fibrillae, or bundles of cellulose tissue, form- 
ing the solid or fully matured part. Upon the successful 
accomplishment of this entirely depends the value of arti- 
ficially preserved wood for structural purposes. If this step 
of the operation is conducted at too low a temperature, or 
for too short a time, the sap or liquid part nearest the sur- 
face will only be extracted, the consequence of which will 
be an insufficient space for receiving the preservative. If, 
on the other hand, the operation is carried on at too high a 
temperature, or for too long a time, the resinous portion of 
the bundles of fibrillse will be softened and the wood lose 
its elasticity in just the proportion that the coherence of 
the fibrillae is lessened. The temperature should never be 
less than 100° C. or exceeding 130° C. Of the two possible 
methods for the removal of the undesirable portions of the 
timber, exposure to currents of dry air, and steaming 
under pressure with an after drying in a vacuum, the latter 
is now the universal practice. While the first-named plan 
may seem the more rational, and the one least likely to 
modify injuriously the physical structure, such is not the 
case. Under proper manipulation, a more thorough desic- 
cation, without harmful change of the organic structure, can 
be accomplished in twelve hours less by the latter process, 
than ig 0ver possible witb air drying which, under the most 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 35 

favorable circumstances, is a long-drawn-out operation, and 
cannot do more than extract the water from that portion of 
the sap which has not yet reached the semi-soHd stage, thus 
leaving in the tissues of the wood a very considerable 
amount of resinous matter which occupies space that should 
be ready to receive the creosote oil. The consequence of 
this is a failure of the oil to reach many of the interfibrous 
passages, which are either left empty or are filled w^ith the 
gelatinous part of the half-matured growth cells in w^hich 
are to be found the conditions that make putrefaction possi- 
ble. In order to remove the sap from wood, it is first neces- 
sary to vaporize it and then to bring about such external 
circumstances which shall allow^ outflow of all gaseous mat- 
ter from the interior of the wood. In order to vaporize the 
sap it is necessary to break down the walls of the cells con- 
taining the liquid and semi-liquid substances. This is 
readily accomplished through the agency of heat applied 
through the medium of a moist steam bath, at such a pres- 
sure as to keep the temperature of the wood, and, its sur- 
rounding atmosphere, somewhat above the boiling point of 
the sap. The maintenance of this condition for a few hours 
is found to be quite sufficient to break down the sap-cell 
tissue and to vaporize all those constituents that it is desir- 
able to withdraw. This point having been reached, the 
steam bath is discontinued ; and the temperature being 
maintained at, or slightly above, the vaporizing point of the 
sap, the pressure of the atmosphere surrounding the wood 
within the chamber is reduced below that of the interior of 
the wood. The result of this condition is an outflow of 
vapor and air, continuing until equilibrium is restored. 
This equilibrium is prevented by the use of an exhaust 
pump until the absence of aqueous vapor in the discharge 
from the pump indicates the completion of the operation. 
At this stage the w^ood tissue is in a state very like that of a 
sponge cleared of hot water ; every pore is gaping open and 
ready to receive the oil. 

In the practice of the Norfolk Creosoting Company the 
most carefully dried lumber is steamed and subjected to the 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 37 

action of the heated ''vacuum '' in order that there may be 
nad that thorough and uniform penetration of the preserv- 
ing liquid that is essential to the highest efficiency of the 
product. The timber having been thus prepared the creo- 
sote oil is admitted to the chamber, which is still kept under 
the influence of the vacuum pump, at a temperature some- 
what above the boiling point of the sap, at the pressure then 
existing in the chamber. As the hot oil envelops the wood 
and enters the interfibrous spaces, the aqueous vapor yet 
remaining in the wood, by reason of its less specific gravity, 
rises to the top of the containing chamber and is withdrawn 
by the pump. By the time that the chamber is entirely 
filled with oil, all the remaining moisture has escaj)ed. The 
exhaust pump is stopped and, in order to facilitate the 
absorption of the oil by the wood, a pressure pump is set 
to work supplying oil to the chamber at such pressure 
as may be desired. This operation is continued until the 
requisite amount of oil has been put into the timber. The 
chamber is then opened and the timber withdrawn. The 
apparatus is then ready for further use. 

The successful conduct of the operation above outlined 
exacts the most careful attention and skillful management, 
supplemented by adequate and suitable appliances. The 
wide divergence in the characteristics of timber ; the vary- 
ing amounts of sap, due to the lapse of time since, and the 
season in which the tree was felled ; its possible subsequent 
immersion in water for a longer or shorter time ; the char- 
acter of the soil and the conditions under which the tree 
grew, whether in a dense forest or a comparatively open 
country, wdiether it is of a rapid even growth, or a slow in- 
termittent one, are all factors contributing to a more or less 
perfect product. To the experienced operator these condi- 
tions indicate, in each case, the proper course to be pursued. 
Failure to observe and to take them into consideration is to 
invite indifferent, uncertain and in the end unsatisfactory 
results. Of equal importance is a proper understanding of 
the circumstances under which the finished product is to be 
used . Timber for piers, wharves and other structures in 




< 

o 
o 

O 
O 

Q 

O 
Ph 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



3& 



tropical waters demandjprocesses and degrees of thorough- 
ness of treatment that are unnecessay in the harbors of 
more temperate chmates, which are, in turn, more exacting 
than land and fresh- water construction. 

It is as true as it is unfortunate, that, in the past — per- 
haps at present— much creosoted work has fallen far below 




^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 



Norfolk Creosoting Company's Cylinder Cars, laden with Cross 
Arms for American Telegraph & Telephone Company. 



the reasonable expectation of the purchaser and user. As 
creosoting is neither a secret or patented process, nor are its 
operations complex, a close and systematic inspection of ma- 
terials used at the place of manufacture is all that is necessary 
for the buyer, and at the time that the creosoting is in pro- 
gress. The cost of a competent intelligent inspection is a 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 41 

justifiable and wise expenditure, and such oversight is wel- 
comed by the Norfolk Creosoting Company. The processes 
of the treatment of timber with dead oil of coal tar having 
been an established success for more than fifty years, it 
follows that the only advantages possessed by one firm over 
another are to be set down to either superiority of ap- 
pliances and manipulation, fortunate location, and business 
sagacity, or a combination of two or more of these circum- 
stances, not one of which can be monopolized for any great 
length of time or to any marked degree. The rules which 
apply to the production of all staples hold equally to the 
preservation of wood, and the proposition to supply a prop- 
erly creosoted timber at a price much below the market 
carries with it the burden of an explanation if it would 
escape the reasonable suspicion of being other than it is 
represented to be. 

The engineers of the Norfolk Creosoting Company have 
acquired, through personal experience, the information ap- 
])earing in the preceding pages, consequently the company 
feels itself warranted in stating that its product cannot be 
excelled in quality and adaptability for all the purposes to 
which creosoted timber is suited. Its plant is modern in 
every particular, with facilities adapted to all requirements, 
and a daily capacity of 60,000 feet B. M. Each chamber is 
provided with coils for heating, through the agency of super- 
heated steam, to any desired temperature ; while for charg- 
ing and discharging them there are suitably located power- 
operated derricks, by means of which m^aterial is handled 
with the greatest possible dispatch. Proper tanks and mix- 
ing vats are had for storing and grading oil, together with all 
the appliances convenient and necessary for its expeditious 
manipulation and movement, while a well equipped labora- 
tory is provided by the company for the use of inspectors. 

An ample battery of boilers supplies steam for powder and 
for heating purposes, and adequate fire protection is afforded, 
in accordance with the standard underwriters' requirements. 
Through its excellent rail and water transportation facilities, 
the company has direct access to the limitless pine forests of 



42 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

the South, the Atlantic seaboard, and at the same time it is 
within easy range of the oil markets of the world. 

Its direct connection with the seven important railway 
systems terminating at Norfolk, and its location immediately 
on the deep waters of Norfolk harbor, afford it the best of 
advantages for shipment to any desired territory. 

CREOSOTED ROUND PILING. 

The table on the following page gives the most econom- 
ical sizes for piling and poles that can be cut from whole 
trees. 

If creosoted piling is dapped through, or is cut off at the 
top, so as to expose the untreated interior, it is necessary to 
protect the parts so exposed with several coats of creosote 
oil, applied hot ; or, if more convenient, a cement of equal 
parts of coal tar and air-slaked lime, applied hot, will answer 
the same end. 

For all harbors of the North Atlantic Coast, including those 
of Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, twelve pounds of dead 
oil of coal tar are quite sufficient. For the harbors of the 
South Atlantic and Gulf, and the ports of the Caribbean Sea, 
fifteen to twenty-four pounds per cubic foot, depending upon 
the exact location and the conditions governing the particular 
case, are required. 



Newport News, Va., November 11, 1899. 
Norfolk Creosoting Company, Norfolk, Va. 

Gentlemen :— Baring the past twelve years I have had occasion to use 
large quantities of creosoted material, both piles and lumber, and I take 
pleasure in saying that all of such material that has been prepared under 
the supervision of Mr, Edmund Christian, General Manager, has been 
found to be perfectly satisfactory. 

I may add that I have such confidence in Mr. Christian's skill and judg- 
ment as an engineer, and his integrity as a business man, that I do not now 
consider it necessary to put an inspector at his works. 

W. A. Post, General Superintendent, 
Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



43 



CREOSOTED ROUND PILING. 

IISUAI. I.ENGTHS, SIZES AND SHIPPING WEIGHTS, 



1*1 


Diam 


,. In. 


Total 
Cu. Ft. 


Total Wt. 


Diam. In, 


Total 
Cu. Ft. 


Total Wt. 


if^ 


Top. 


Bull. 


12 


20 


Top. 
9 


Butt. 


12 


20 


20 


6 


9 


6.2 


372 


409 


11 


10.92 


655 


721 


20 


7 


10 


7.9 


470 


521 


10 


12 


12.92 


775 


853 


25 


6 


9 


7.8 


464 


515 


10 


12 


16.16 


970 


1066 


25 


9 


11 


13.56 


813 


895 


12 


14 


23.02 


1381 


1519 


30 


8 


11 


14.88 


893 


982 


12 


14 


27.64 


1658 


1824 


35 


9 


12 


21.16 


1270 


1396 


13 


16 


39,76 


2385 


2624 


40 


6 


12 


18.30 


1098 


1208 


7 


13 


22.45 


2007 


1482 


40 


8 


14 


27.66 


1060 


1825 


10 


15 


34.54 


2072 


2280 


45 


7 


14 


28.05 


1683 


1851 


9 


16 


39.75 


2385 


2624 


45 


9 


15 


36.11 


2166 


2383 


12 


18 


56.01 


3360 


3697 


50 


6 


13 


25.74 


1544 


1649 


9 


16 


44.36 


2661 


2927 


50 


6 


14 


28.77 


1726 


1999 


10 


16 


47.06 


2824 


3106 


50 


7 


15 


34.50 


2070 


2277 


10 


18 


54.94 


3296 


3626 


55 


8 


14 


38.03 


2282 


2510 


8 


16 


44.82 


2689 


2958 


55 


9 


15 


44.12 


2647 


2912 


9 


18 


56.82 


3409 


3750 


60 


6 


15 


38.36 


2301 


2532 


8 


17 


53.34 


3200 


3520 


60 


7 


15 


41.42 


2485 


2734 


9 


17 


57.14 


3428 


3771 


65 


6 


16 


45.83 


2750 


3025 


8 


17 


57.76 


3465 


3812 


65 


7 


16 


49.32 


2960 


3255 


9 


18 


67.14 


4028 


4431 


70 


6 


18 


59.58 


3575 


3932 


6 


20 


70.83 


4250 


4675 


70 


6 


19 


68.45 


4107 


4518 


7 


22 


87.33 


5240 


5764 


75 


6 


22 


89.90 


5394 


5933 


7 


24 


108.12 


6487 


7136 


75 


7 


22 


93.56 


5614 


6175 


8 


24 


113.47 


6708 


7489 


80 


6 


26 


126.20 


7572 


8329 


7 


26 


131.88 


7913 


8704 


85 


6 


26 


134.11 


8047 


8851 


7 


26 


140.15 


8409 


9250 



44 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



CREOSOTED POLES FOR ELECTRIC RAIL- 
WAYS, TELEPHONES AND TELE- 
GRAPH LINES. 







Least Diam. 




Weight per Cubic Feet. 










Total 








Shape. 


Lertgth. 






Cubic Ft. 






















Top. 


Butt. 




10 


12 


15 


Circular . . 


25 


5 


10 


7.85 


438 


450 


475 




30 


5 


12 


12.48 


693 


712 


756 




35 


6 


13 


18.00 


999 


1034 


1089 




40 


7 


14 


24.93 


1383 


1433 


1509 




45 


7 


14 


28,05 


1557 


1611 


1648 




50 


8 


15 


37.15 


2061 


2133 


2249 




55 


8 


16 


44.78 


2485 


2573 


2711 




60 


8 


16 


48.86 


2711 


2806 


2958 




65 


8 


17 


56.85 


3155 


3265 


3442 




70 


9 


18 


71.02 


3941 


4079 


4300 




75 


9 


18 


81.22 


4507 


4666 


4916 




80 


9 


19 


89.09 


4944 


5117 


5394 


Octagon . . 


25 


5 


10 


6.99 


388 


415 


420 




30 


5 


12 


11.29 


626 


648 


684 




35 


6 


12 


14.41 


800 


828 


872 




40 


6 


14 


20.62 


1144 


1184 


1247 




45 


7 


14 


25.14 


1395 


1444 


1522 




50 


7 


15 


30.95 


1717 


1777 


1873 




55 


8 


15 


36.78 


2041 


2113 


2227 




60 


8 


16 


43.84 


2433 


2518 


2654 




65 


8 


17 


51.98 


2884 


2986 


3147 




70 


8 


17 


55.99 


3107 


3291 


3390 




75 


8 


18 


65.27 


3623 


3749 


3952 




80 


8 


18 


69.60 


3862 


3998 


4215 


Square . . 


25 


4 


9 


7.69 


426 


442 


465 




30 


4 


9 


10.04 


557 


576 


608 




35 


5 


11 


16.26 


902 


934 


984 




40 


6 


12 


23.20 


1287 


1332 


1404 




45 


6 


12 


26.25 


1456 


1506 


1589 




50 


6 


13 


32.74 


1816 


1880 


1982 




55 


7 


14 


43.66 


2423 


2507 


2643 




60 


7 


14 


47.63 


2643 


2735 


2883 




65 


7 


15 


55.42 


2870 


2970 


3131 




70 


7 


15 


61.40 


3407 


3526 


3717 




75 


7 


16 


72.17 


4005 


4145 


4369 




80 


7 


16 


76.96 


4271 


4421 


4768 



Note. — Lengths are in feet ; other dimensions are in inches. 
Weights are for treatments of 10, 12 and 15 pounds of oil re- 
spectively. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



45 



CKEOSOTED CROSS-ARMS FOR AERIAL 
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS. 



11 


Levgth. 


Size. 


ll 


Cubic 
Foot. 


Weight in Povnds of Oil per 
Cubic Foot. 


^^ 


10 


12 


i5 


1 


2' -00'' 


3I4 X 41/4 


2 


0.182 


10.1 


10.5 


11. 


2 


4' -00" 




4 


0.364 


20.3 


21.1 


22. 


3 


6' -00'' 


(( u 


6 


0.538 


30.0 


31.2 


32.6 


4 


8' -00'' 


(^ 


8 


0.728 


40.6 


42.2 


44.1 


5 


lO'-OO'' 


1.1. (( 


10 


0.910 


50.6 


52.7 


55.1 


6 


12' -00'' 


. . 


12 


1.092 


60.8 


63.3 


66.1 


7 


2'-7' 


3 x4 


2 


0.214 


11.7 


12.4 


12.7 


8 


5'-l" 


'\ 


4 


0.464 


22.7 


26.9 


24.7 


9 


7-1" 




6 


0.635 


35.4 


36.8 


37.4 


10 


10' -1" 


41- U 


8 


0.847 


47.3 


49.1 


49.7 


11 


12' -7" 




10 


1.054 


58.9 


61.1 


61.8 



For cross-arms of any diinension and specification, a 
treatment of 12 pounds of oil per cubic foot is recom- 
mended. 



46 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



CREOSOTE D WOOD CONDUITS FOR UNDER 
GROUND ELECTRICAL. CONDUCTORS. 







Outside 
Dimensio7i. 


Net 
Length. 


Spigot 
Length. 


Weight per Lineal Ft. 
15 lbs. Oil per Cu. Ft. 


1 


1^/2'' 


Square 3" x 3'' 


8'— 00'^ 


l\" 


3.0 lbs. 


2 


2" 


'• 3Vx3V 


" 


" 


3.5 " 


3 


2\" 


" 4'' X 4'^ 


i ( 


" 


4.3 " 


4 


Z" 


" 4Vx4V 


" 


" 


5.2 " 


5 


Z\" 


" b" xb" 


1 ( 


t ( 


6.4 " 



All conduit is worked to exact outside dimension, and 
then bored and reamed. The joints are so made as to allow 
it to ^' build" in the trench without shimming or blocking. 
The completed piece is then creosoted. 

Creosoted wood tubing is superior to all other materials 
for underground electrical conduits in that it is as durable 
as tiling or masonry, and has a much smoother and more 
uniform interior than either, presenting no sharp corners 
to injure the cable as it is being drawn through. 

The dead oil of coal tar contains no substance which is 
in any way injurious to the cable or its covering. 

It is easily entered and resealed between manholes. 

Its extreme lightness makes any foundation, beyond a 
single thickness of plank, unnecessary, even in the softest 
earth. This fact, together with the narrowness of the trench 
and the length of the pieces, reduces the construction charges 
30% below that of a tile or masonry conduit of hke capacity, 
and makeF it possible to work advantageously a much larger 
force than would be otherwise possible. Special conduit 
made and treated to specification by the Norfolk Creosoting 
Company. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



47 



CREOSOTED CROSS-TIES FOR STEAM AND 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 



Dimensions. 


Feet B. M. 


Feet, Cubic. 


Weight. 


10 lbs. Oil. 


12 lbs. Oil. 


4x6-5 


10. 


0.833 


45 


48 


4x6-6 


12. 


1.000 


55 


58 


5x6-5 


12.5 


1.041 


57 


60 


5x6-6 


15. 


1.250 


69 


72 


5x6-7 


17.5 


1.475 


81 


85 


6x8-6 


24. 


2.000 


110 


116 


6x8-7 


28. 


2.333 


128 


135 


6x8- 7'-6'' 


30. 


2.500 


138 


145 


6x8-8 


32. 


2.666 


146 


154 


6x8- 8'- 6" 


34. 


2.833 


156 


164 


It 1-1 


28.5 


2.390 


132 


138 


1x1-8 


32.6 


2.716 


149 


157 


1x1- 8'-6'^ 


34.6 


2.891 


159 


167 


8x8-9 


48. 


4.000 


220 


232 


8x 8-10 


53. 


4.416 


243 


256 


8x 8-12 


64. 


5.333 


293 


309 


8 X 10-10 


66.6 


5.555 


305 


322 


8 X 10-12 


80. 


6.666 


366 


404 


8 X 10-14 


93. 


7.750 


426 


449 



Weights are for 10 and 12 pounds of oil, respectively, per 
cubic foot. 

The Norfolk Creosoting Company sizes all ties to exact 
dimensions before treating, and they are ready for immediate 
use on leaving the works. The company furnishes ties 
under any specification and treatment. 



48 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

CREOSOTED BOX CULVERTS. 

RAILWAY, STREET AND HIGHWAY USES. 

This form of structure offers many advantages of utility 
and low first cost for openings of three to twelve foot span. 

They are as durable as masonry, and, on account of their 
smooth walls and bottom, offer much less resistance to the 
passage of water and are less liable to be obstructed by the 
catching of brush and sticks against the walls and bottom. 
Their lightness renders a much less expensive foundation 
necessary, and their imperviousness makes them proof 
against damage from frost; while their elastic character ex- 
empts them from the results of vibration, due to passing 
trains, so frequently disastrous to masonry structures. 

All portions of these culverts are securely fastened; and, 
when erection is complete, the entire structure is practically 
one piece ; so that pavements do not cut out, nor walls fall 
in, under the action of flood- water. Such a culvert, once 
erected, is charged out with the assurance that there will 
be no annual maintenance estimates for pointing up cracks 
or painting iron work. 

Culverts of any span, up to fourteen feet, and of any length, 
are gotten out and treated by the Norfolk Creosoting Com- 
pany in accordance with specifications, ready for use. Esti- 
mates and plans are submitted when desired. 

A treatment of fifteen pounds of oil per cubic foot is re- 
commended. 

TRUNK SEWERS AND ARTIFICIAL 
CHANNELS. 

Trunk sewers and artificial channels for streams are very 
advantageously constructed of creosoted timber, where the 
cross-section area is four feet or over ; the channel being 
either closed or open, and the cross-section being either cir- 
cular or rectangular, or with vertical sides and V-shaped 
floor. All joints are water-tight, and there is absolutely no 
absorption of passing liquids, nor is the interior surface 
broken or damaged by the sticks and stones and other 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 49 

debris accompanying storm water, as is so often the case 
with masonry conduits having plastered interiors. All in- 
terior surfaces are dressed, and so present the least possible 
resistance to the flow of water. In open channels the dif- 
ference is 30 per cent, in its favor, as compared with the 
smoothest of cement-plastered walls. The comparatively 
thin walls reduce the excavation on their account 50 per 
cent., while the rapidity with which the erection can be car- 
ried on reduces the risk and expense attendant upon the 
trenching. Except in ver}^ bad ground, no foundation is 
needed, while in swampy places the quantity of timber 
needed for the foundation of a masonry-conduit will be suf- 
ficient for the floor of a creosoted one. 

Structures of this character are gotten out and treated by 
the Norfolk Creosoting Company, ready for use, in accord- 
ance with specification. Plans and estimates submitted 
when desired. 

CREOSOTED 'WOOD-BLOCK PAVEMENTS. 

Creosoted wood-block pavements, properly laid on a suit- 
able base, form one of the most durable and satisfactory 
street coverings yet devised. 

Creosoted wood being absolutely non-absorbent, such a 
pavement takes up none of the liquids of the street and 
furnishes no lodgment for any substance deleterious to 
health. 

Being perfectly sanitary, it is especially well adapted to 
the streets of tropical and sub-tropical cities. By reason of 
its peculiarly leathery surface, a creosoted block pavement 
is especially pleasing to a horse, allowing him to travel 
without apprehension of slipping ; so that he moves con- 
fidently and easily and without that disagreeable slapping 
so noticeable in horses travelling over other forms of smooth 
pavements. Experience in the United States and in Europe 
has shown that a properly constructed creosoted wood-block 
pavement will carry a traffic of 3,500 tons per foot of street 
width, per annum, for a period of fifteen years ; and that it 



50 CBEOSOTED TIMBER 

deteriorates from wear and not from decay ; so that it may 
be expected to last proportionately longer under a less 
volume of traffic. 

An instance of the great durability of such a pavement is 
shown in the cut below, which is that of a creosoted wood- 
paving block, laid on Market Street, in the City of Galveston, 
Texas, after seventeen years' continual service. The block 
was, when laid, six inches deep, the actual wear during the 
seventeen years' service was somewhat less than one-half 
inch, or approximately three one hundredths inch, per 
annum. The pavement from which this sample was taken 
is yet in service at the end of twenty-four years, and is in 



good condition except as to those portions which were not 
properly repaired after having been torn up for the con- 
struction of street-car tracks, sewers and water-pipe lines. 

A creosoted wood-block pavement is superior to all others 
in that it is noiseless, smooth without being slippery, imper- 
vious and therefore sanitary, and because its great durability 
renders maintenance charges a minimum. 

Creosoted wood-paving blocks of any suitable dimension 
furnished to any specification by the Norfolk Creosoting Com- 
pany, who make a specialty. Specifications furnished upon 
suitable information as to the governing conditions. 

Twelve pounds of oil per cubic foot is recommended for 
this class of work. 



SPECIFICATION FOR CREOSOTED 

TIMBER. 

Materials. — Timber shall be of the dimension specified, 
straight, free from windshakes, large or loose or decayed 
knots, red-heart or anything impairing its strength or dura- 
bility, and to be cut from sound live trees, and to be ... 

Oil — All oil shall be the heavy or dead oil of coal tar, 
containing not more than IJ per cent, of water, and not 
more than 5 per cent, of tar, and not more than 5 per cent, 
of carbolic acid. 

It must not flash below 185° F. nor burn below 200° F. 
and it must be fluid at 118° F. It must begin to distil at 
320° F. and must yield between that temperature and 410° 
F. of all substances, less than 20 per cent., by volume. 

Between 410 and 470° F. the yield of naphthalene must be 
not less than 40 nor more than 60 per cent, by volume. At 
two degrees above its liquefying point it must have a spe- 
cific gravity of maximum 1.05 and minimum 1.015. 

Pkocesses of Treatment. — Seasoning : This is to be accom- 
plished by subjecting the timber to the action of live steam 
for a period of from five to seven hours at a pressure of 35 
to 55 pounds per square inch, the temperature not at any 
time exceeding 275° F. unless the timber be water-soaked, 
in which case it may reach 285° F. for the first half of the 
period. At the expiration of the steaming the chamber 
shall be entirely emptied of sap and water by drawing ofl* 
at the bottom. As soon as the chamber is cleared of all sap 
and water a vacuum of not less than 20 inches shall be set 
up and maintained in the chamber, for a period of from five 
to eight hours, or until the discharge from the vacuum pump 
has no odor or taste, the temperature in the chamber being 
maintained at between 100 and 130° F. The chamber being 
again emptied of all sap and water the oil is to be admitted, 
the vacuum pump being worked at its full speed until the 
chamber is filled with oil. As soon, thereafter, as is prao- 



52 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

ticable such a pressure shall be set up as shall cause the 
entire charge of timber to absorb . . . pounds of oil within 
. . . per cent, more or less (at a minimum penetration of IJ 
inches in round timber for a treatment of 12 pounds of 
oil per cubic feet, constituting a basis for determining the 
penetration due to a treatment of any specific quantity of 
oil) . . . inches from all exposed surfaces. The depth of 
the penetration being ascertained by boring the treated 
piece with an auger, making a hole not more than | inch in 
diameter, such pieces as are found not to liave the required 
penetration being returned to the chamber with a subse- 
quent charge for further treatment. 

Insf*ection. — Inspection shall be made as the work pro- 
gresses, and at as early a date as is practicable, in order that 
there may be a minimum loss of time and materials due to 
rejections. 

The inspector, or other authorized agent of the purchaser, 
shall have reasonable notice of the intention on the part of 
the contractor to begin the treatment of a charge of timber, 
and he shall have at all times during the treatment of the 
timber under his charge access to the works, and all reason- 
able and necessary facilities for ascertaining that all the re- 
quirements of this specification are complied with. Such 
** reasonable facilities "providing opportunity, at the proper 
time, for measuring all timber, treatment-chambers, oil- 
tanks, etc., and for taking samples of the oil being used, for 
analysis, as often as he may deem necessary. 

Note. — All cut ends, mortises, tenons, and other incisions of the original 
surface of creosoted timber, should be protected by not less than four coats of 
creosote oil, applied boiling hot with a brush or mop. In the case of moor- 
ing piles, fender piles, and other timber having the cut end exposed to the 
weather, the portions so exposed should have, in addition to the creosote 
oil, a heavy final coat of a paste made of equal parts of unslaked lime and 
creosote oil, applied hot. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



53 



?2 

1 


00 


26892 
21512 
17928 
16366 


13446 

11952 

10756 

9778 


8964 
8274 
7682 

7170 


OCOCDOTOOCOCO 
(M(M!>CO Al>C0O> 
j>C0OC0 ®C0-<OCD 
COCDtOiO lOiO'*"* 


FCOO^ 

^ co^oo 

' rHOOlO 

^coco 


«o 


21248 
16998 
14164 
12140 


10620 
9442 
8498 
7726 


7082 
6636 
6070 
5666 


6312 
6999 
4499 
4472 


4248 
4046 
3862 
3694 


00^(M 
COCOCO 

cqooo 
co(M(^J 


lO 


18674 
14940 
12460 
10670 


9336 
8300 
7470 
6790 


6224 
5746 
5334 
4980 


4668 
4394 
4110 
3930 


•^ CO (^q CO (:q CD o 

COiOO '^JXMO 
J>LO00 (MCOCO'^ 
COCOCO CO(MCq(M 




16218 

13014 

10844 

9296 


8134 
7230 
6606 
6914 


5422 
5004 
4648 
4339 


4066 
3926 
3614 
3424 


3252 
3099 
2956 
2828 


(M^OO 
0(MCD 

lOCOrH 

(M(MCq 




14026 

11220 

9360 

8014 


7012 
6234 
6610 
6100 


4674 
4316 
4006 
3740 


3606 
3228 
3116 
2952 


2804 
2670 
2560 
2439 


ocqo 

rH01> 

cooco 
cq(M'H 


(M 

1—1 


11952 
9560 
7968 
6828 


6976 
6312 
4780 
4346 


2994 
3676 
3414 
3196 


2998 
2812 
2656 
2516 


2390 
2276 

2172 
2078 


OCD(M 
ClOO 

Ot>L0 
rH rH rH 


- 


10042 
8034 
6694 
5738 


6020 
4462 
4016 
3662 


3346 
3090 
2868 
2679 


2510 
2360 
2230 
2114 


2008 
1912 
1824 
1746 


^'^CO 

^coco 

lO^CO 

rH rH rH 


O 


8300 
6640 
5532 

4742 


4150 
3688 
3220 
3818 


5X55 
02.S5 
5995 
992.5 


2074 
1952 
1844 
1746 


OO00(N 
COCOON 
COLO 10 Tj^ 


CD^CD 

j>oo 

CqrHrH 
rHrHrH 


05 


6722 
5378 
4482 
3840 


3360 
2988 
2688 

2444 


2240 
2068 
1928 
1792 


OO^^ 

cooo-< 

C0iO\t<^ 

iH rH tH rH 


^O(MC0 
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OOCSKMrH 
>H rH iH rH 


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CO coo 
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00 


6312 
4248 
3640 
3034 


2656 
2360 
2124 
1930 


1770 
1634 
1626 
1416 


1328 
1244 
1192 
1118 


(NO^ COCOOOCO 

CO-HCO Cq-^lOO 
OOO OC0J>I> 

T-t rH 


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4066 
3252 
2710 
2324 


2032 
1806 
1626 
1470 


1354 
1260 
1246 
1104 


998 
006 
996 
9XOX 


cq^oco 
iHj>C0O 
COI>>J> 




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2988 
2390 
1992 
1706 


1494 
1328 
1194 
1086 


962. 
598 
8X6 
966 


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10 




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2074 
1660 
1382 
1184 


1036 
922 
830 

764 


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1328 

1062 

884 

758 


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CO 10 10 "l^ 


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,o 


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t-l 


.»J 






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■^ 






CO 


% 




^ 


bf) 


o 


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fl 


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3 


(Ti 




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^ 






a 


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'S 


C5 


3 


?J_ 


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Q 






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<A 


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t=H 


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rrj 


c8 


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54 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

RECTANGULAR WOODEN PILLARS, 





Crippling Strength 
Founds per Sq. Inch. 






Crippling Strength 
Founds per Sq. Inch. 




I 




1 




6 + 1 


I 




1 




6 + 1 


d 




1 


g 

< 


10 d 


d 


e 
^ 


1 


^ 


10 d 






« 

-§ 

1 


so 








i 


sc 

2 




12. 


4440 


4020 


3680 


7.2 


30. 


2120 


1620 


1310 


9. 


13.2 


4250 


3800 


3430 


7.32 


31.2 


2020 


1530 


1230 


9.12 


14.4 


4070 


3580 


3190 


7.44 


32.4 


1930 


1450 


1160 


9.24 


15.6 


3880 


3370 


2970 


7.56 


33.6 


1830 


1370 


1100 


9.36 


16.8 


3700 


3160 


2760 


7.68 


34.8 


1750 


1300 


1040 


9.48 


18. 


3520 


2970 


2570 


7.8 


36. 


1670 


1230 


980 


9.6 


19.2 


3350 


2790 


2390 


7.92 


37.2 


1590 


1170 


930 


9.72 


20.4 


3190 


2620 


2230 


8.04 


38.4 


1520 


1120 


880 


9.84 


21.6 


3040 


2740 


2080 


8.16 


39.6 


1450 


1060 


840 


9.96 


22.8 


2890 


2320 


1940 


8.28 


40.8 


1390 


1010 


790 


10.08 


24. 


2740 


2180 


1810 


8.4 


42. 


1330 


960 


760 


10.2 


25.2 


2600 


2050 


1690 


8.52 


43.2 


1270 


920 


720 


10.32 


26.4 


2470 


1930 


1580 


8.64 


44.4 


1220 


880 


690 


10.44 


27.6 


2350 


1820 


1490 


8.76 


45.6 


1170 


840 


650 


10.56 


28.8 


2230 


1720 


1400 


8.88 


46.8 


1120 


800 


620 


10.68 



I length in inches. 

d least side of cross-section in inches. 

Formulae: Flat Ends ; Pin and Flat Ends ; Pin Ends. 
5600 5600 5600 

1 + 



bdO(F 



1 + 



1.51'^ 



550^2 



1 + 



V 



21bd' 



If desired the constant in the above formula, 5600, may be 
replaced by 8000 pounds ultimate resistance to compression 
of Georgia long-leafed yellow pine ; 7000 pounds ultimate 
resistance to compression of white oak. Applicable to 
either plain or creosoted timber. 



CLASSIFICATION OF YELLOW 
PINE LUMBER. 

Southern Lumber and Timber Association, adopted February 14, 1883, 

Classification. — Flooring shall embrace four and five 
quarter inches in thickness by three to six inches in width. 
For example : 1 x 3, 4, 5 and 6 ; IJ x 3, 4, 5 and 6. 

Boards shall embrace all thicknesses under one and one- 
half by seven inches and up wide, including one and one- 
half inches in thickness, by seven in width. For example : 
f , 1, IJ, 1^ inches thick by seven inches and up in width. 

Scantling shall embrace all sizes from two to five inches 
in thickness, and two to six inches wide. For example : 
2x2,2x3, 2x4, 2x5,2x6, 3x3, 3x4, 3x5, 3x6, 4x4, 
4x5,4x6,5x5,5x6. 

Plank shall embrace all sizes from one and one-half to five 
inches in thickness by seven inches and up in width. For 
example : IJ, 2, 2J, 3, 32, 4, 4|, and 5x7 and up in width. 

Dimension sizes shall embrace all sizes, six inches and up 
in thickness by seven inches and up in width, including 6x6. 
For example : 6 x 6, 6 x 7, 7 x 7, 7 x 8, 8 x 8, 8 x 9, and up. 

Inspection. — Square edge : Flooring shall show no wane, 
shall be free from through or round shakes or knots exceed- 
ing one inch and a half in diameter, or more than six to a 
board ; sap no objection. 

Boards shall show no wane, shall be free from round or 
through shakes, large or unsound knots ; sap no objection. 

Scantling shall be free from injurious shakes, unsound 
knots, or knots to impair strength ; sap no objection. 

Plank shall be free from unsound knots, wanes, through 
or round shakes ; sap no objection. 

All stock to be well and truly manufactured, full to sizes, 
and saw-butted. 

Merchantable.— Flooring shall show one heart face, re- 
gardless of sap on opposite side ; free from through or round 



56 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

shakes, or knots exceeding one inch in diameter, or more 
than four to a board on face side. 

Boards, nine and a half inches and under wide, shall show 
one heart face and two-thirds heart on opposite side ; over 
nine inches wide, shall show two-thirds heart on both sides ; 
all free from round or through shakes, large or unsound 
knots. 

Scantling shall show three corners heart, free from injurious 
shakes or unsound knots. 

Plank, nine inches and under wide, shall show one heart 
face and two-thirds heart on opposite side ; over nine inches 
wide, shall show tw^o-thirds heart on both sides ; all free 
from round or through shakes, large or unsound knots. 

Dimension Sizes. — All square lumber shall show two-thirds 
heart on two sides, and not less than one-half heart on two 
other sides. Other sizes shall show two-thirds heart on faces, 
and show heart two-thirds of the length on edges, excepting 
where the width exceeds the thickness by three inches or 
over, then it shall show heart on the edges for one-half its 
length. 

Stepping shall show three corners heart, free from shakes, 
and all knots exceeding half an inch in diameter, and not more 
than six to the board. 

Eough Edge or Flitch shall be sawed from good heart tim- 
ber, and shall be measured in the middle, on the narrow 
face ; free from injurious shakes or unsound knots. 

All stock to be well and truly manufactured, full to sizes, 
and saw-butted. 

Prime Flooring shall show one entire heart face and two- 
thirds heart on the opposite side, clear of splits, shakes or 
knots exceeding one inch in diameter, or more than four to 
the board. 

Boards shall show one heart face and two-thirds heart on 
the opposite side, free from shakes and large and unsound 
knots. 

Scantling shall show three corners heart, and not to ex- 
ceed one inch of sap on fourth corner, measured diagonally, 
free from heart shakes, large or unsound knots. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 57 

Plank shall show one entire heart face, on opposite face 
not exceeding one- sixth its width of sap on each corner, free 
from unsound knots, through or round shakes ; sap to be 
measured on face 

Dimension Sizes. — On all square sizes the sap on each cor- 
ner shall not exceed one-sixth the width of the face. When 
the width does not exceed the thickness by three inches, to 
show half heart on narrow face the entire length ; exceed- 
ing three inches, to show heart on narrow face the entire 
length ; sap on wide faces to be measured as on square sizes. 

Eough Edge or Flitch shall be measured in middle, on 
narrow face, inside of sap, free from shakes or unsound 
knots. 

Clear. — Flooring, Stepping and Boards shall be free from 
knots, sap, pitch, and all other defects. 

Scantling shall be free from sap, large knots, and other 
defects. 

Plank shall be free from large knots, sap or other defects. 

Dimension Sizes shall be free from sap, large or unsound 
knots, shakes through or round. 

Kesawed lumber is lumber sawn on four sides. 

Rough Edge or Flitch is lumber sawn on two sides. 



Baltimore, October 30, 1899. 

Norfolk Creosoting Co., Norfolk, Va. 

Gentlemen ;— It gives u^ pleasure to testify to the valuable work that you 
are doing and to the character of material that has been supplied us for our 
various contracts along the Seaboard, where we have used creosoted piles 
and timber. 

We have been using your material constantly since you started your 
works and have not had a complaint from any of the completed contracts 
that we have done up to this time. 

The work has been not only satisfactory, but the capacity of your plant 
has been such as to give us prompt and reliable deliveries of material. 
Yours very truly, 

W. B. Brooks, Jr., Vice-President, 

Sanford & Brooks Co., Contractors. 



58 



CHEOSOTED TIMBER 



ROUND TIMBER. 

BOARD MEASURE VOI.UME. 



Diameter 


LENGTH IN FEET, 


%7l 

Inches. 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


11 


37 


43 


49 


55 


61 


67 


74 


12 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


88 


96 


13 


61 


71 


81 


91 


101 


111 


122 


14 


75 


88 


100 


112 


125 


137 


150 


15 


91 


106 


121 


136 


151 


166 


181 


16 


108 


126 


144 


162 


180 


198 


216 


17 


124 


148 


169 


190 


211 


232 


253 


18 


147 


171 


196 


220 


245 


269 


294 


19 


169 


197 


225 


253 


280 


309 


338 


20 


192 


224 


256 


288 


320 


352 


384 


21 


217 


253 


289 


325 


361 


397 


433 


22 


243 


283 


324 


364 


404 


445 


486 


23 


271 


313 


359 


406 


452 


496 


541 


24 


300 


350 


400 


450 


500 


550 


600 


25 


331 


386 


441 


496 


551 


606 


661 


26 


363 


423 


484 


544 


605 


665 


726 


27 


397 


463 


530 


596 


661 


726 


794 


28 


432 


504 


576 


648 


720 


793 


864 


29 


469 


547 


625 


703 


782 


860 


938 


30 


507 


591 


676 


761 


845 


930 


1014 


31 


547 


638 


729 


820 


912 


1004 


1094 


32 


588 


686 


784 


882 


980 


1078 


1176 


33 


631 


736 


841 


946 


1051 


1156 


1263 


34 


675 


787 


900 


1012 


1125 


1237 


1351 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



59 



APPROXIMATE AMOUNTS OP WOODEN 
RAILWAY TRESTLES. 





Feet Beam per Lineal 
Foot. 


Masonry Footings, 

Cubic Yards per 

Lineal Foot. 


Pounds of Iron per 
Lineal Foot. 


.9 <i>'^ 


Stringer 

Two pieces 

8:^16. 


Stringer 
Three pes. 

230 


Bolts and 
Nuts. 


Washers. 


If Filled 

Yards Eq 

quired per 

Foo 


10 


207 


0.8 


9.3 


2.6 


12 


15 


236 


259 


0.9 


10.2 


3.1 


22 


20 


268 


291 


1.1 


10.2 


3.1 


35 


25 


295 


318 


1.2 


11.7 


3.9 


50 ■' 


30 


332 


355 


1.3 


12.4 


4.3 


69 


35 


362 


385 


1.4 


13.3 


4.9 


89 


40 


327 


336 


0.8 


11.2 


3.7 


114 


45 


340 


349 


0.8 


11.2 


3.7 


141 


50 


380 


389 


0.9 


11.8 


4.1 


170 


55 


413 


422 


1.0 


13.7 


5.1 


203 


60 


425 


434 


1.0 


13.7 


5.1 


238 


65 


472 


481 


1.1 


16.2 


6.9 


276 


70 


493 


502 


1.1 


16.2 


6.9 


316 


75 


540 


549 


1.0 


17.7 


7.7 


360 


80 


583 


592 


1.0 


19.4 


8.7 


443 


85 


599 


608 


1.0 


19.4 


8.7 


470 


90 


635 


644 


1.0 


21.9 


11.0 


507 


95 


657 


666 


1.0 


21.9 


11.0 


561 


100 


706 


715 


1.0 


23.3 


11.8 


619 


110 


769 


778 


1.0 


24.9 


12.8 


742 


120 


828 


837 


1.0 


27.4 


14.5 


839 


130 


898 


907 


1.0 


28.8 


15.3 


1021 


140 


986 


995 


1.0 


32.9 


18.0 


1177 


150 


1052 


1065 


1.0 


34.3 


18.8 


1344 



60 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



PROPERTIES OF SEASONED STRUCTURAL 

WOODS. 





Weight 

Cubic 

Feet. 


Ultimate Strength per Square Inch. 


Variety, 


Tension. 


Compres- 
sion. 


Shear 
Across Gr. 


Shear 
WithGr. 


Ash ' 


50 


16.850 


9,180 


1.250- 




Beech, Amer 


47 


10,430 


10,432 




. . 


Birch, " .... 


47 


7,000 


8.000 


. . 


. . 


Cedar, Amer. Red . 


40 


10,000 


5 000 


. . 


. . 


Cherry, Wild . . . , 


42 


. . 


8,000 


. . 


. . 


Chestnut 


41 


11,500 


5.300 


616 


. . 


Cypress 


36 


6,000 


6.800 


. . 


. . 


Elm, Amer. White . 


35 


14.000 


10.300 


1.250 


. . 


Fir-Spruce 


25 


9.000 


6,800 


800 


400 


Hemlock 


25 


9,000 


6.000 


800 


. . 


Hickory, Amer. . " . 


53 


11,000 


8,000 


. . 


. . 


Locust, Black .... 


58 


18,000 


9.800 - 


. . 


. . 


Honey . . . 


58 


18,000 


7,000 




. . 


Maple, Amer 


49 


10,000 


8,000 


' 


. . 


Oak, Amer. White . 


50 


10,000 


7,000 


2,000 


800 


" Red . . 


45 


10,000 


6,000 


2.000 


. . 


Pine, '' White . 


25 


10,000 


8,500 


800 


400 


Pine, Amer, Long- 












Leafed Yellow . . 


45 


12,600 


8,500 


1.440 


600 


Shortleaf .... 


40 


. . 


5,900 




. . 


Loblolly 


40 


. . 


6,500 






Poplar 


30 


7.000 


5,000 






Teak, Indian .... 


45 


15,000 


12,000 




, . ' 


Sycamore 


37 


12,000 


6,000 






Walnut, Black . . . 


40 


8,000 


8,000 







ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



61 





S 


s^ 


1 




















1^^ 














'^ c3 








, 






^ +^ 








<D 






o 














II £ 




cc 








«c 


<^ <D 


W 


• 1— 1 




o 




1 


-1 


c3 


o3 




• i-H 






0) S 


i 


.^ 
^ 




03 






^ CD 

X 




2 

^3 


















O 

O 




















f"^ 












>^ 


rO 












^ 

•S 


;i 












^ 


rCi 












^ 


























o 














rHlC^ 














(M 






rd 








<M 






rO 




r< 




O 






II 




r>0 




o 








II 




rO 


H 




6s 




1^ 


II 

|■^< 


^ 


r< 




;-^ 






rO 


[(M 




1 


^ 








+ 


^ IG^ 
-O 1—1 


rJ 


> 

1 


+ 

1—1 

il^ 


+ 




II II 


II II 


II 


il 


II 


II 




1^ <:u 


K< ^ 


H 


-o 


•^ 


^ 




> 


<: 


1 






;<-Q 


J{ 


?i 










1^ 


^ 


\ 


/ 


\ 


, 


' 


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-Q 






-Q / ; / 


< 


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<^ 








l^ 


/ 7 


\ 


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/ ; 


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.^. 


i: 


















; ' 








1 '< 


1 


Qj i 




!< Qj \ 








vQ, ;! 
















< 





















62 



CEEOSOTED TIMBER 



O 

H 

B 

CQ 



Hi 

O 



H 
OS 

M 

Em 
O 

35 
H 
1^ 

i 



!§ 



^ 

2 






W 









I 



-< 

-O 



)(M 



H -^ 






CD 



HnIco 

II II 



rOJ CO 



(M 






V'-<I<N 






^ir^ 



S <:o 



I II 
^ II 

d C 

II II 



o 









ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



63 





8 

•1 






CJ 




a5 


^ 




t 


a 


g 




'd 

a 


1 f 
a ~ 






-tj 


-tj 


-*j 




^j CO 




^ 


ea 


as 


cS 


^ 


tH 


C3 ^ — 




J 


CO -H 


^ l-i 


« 


v^ 


►»«> 




M tH -H 


i 

1 


!^ 


S TO 




S 


CO 


few 




1 
1 


1 


a 

a. 


a 


6 

a 


c5 

1 1 

':^ a 


§ 




eS 










1 


fegi- 


gl- 


g^ 


^-fe 








^• 


-i-j 


-s -^^' 










^ 


^ 


^^ ^ 




^ 






a 


o 


i-< ^ 9. 

eS O p. 




V 


o 


o 


p. 


P. 


C/ Ph Pu 




^ 


A 


Ph 


s 


d 


P P- 3 




Q. 


p. 


m 


(a 


i^ = ^ 




^ 


3 


s 


j^ 


>^ 


o <» -^ 




H 

i 


00 




ce 


03 


<S e« 




-S 


CIS 


K 


U 


fO 


^ 






^ 


^ 


5 


5 


^ 


^5^ 
















1 i 






'd 




oJ 




'-' 03 oj 






P 








ro^ 






a? 




'^ 




(D O 'd 






a> 




'P 






'is 


! 


'd 


'g 


'd 


g oj -d S 






« 


03 


OS 

'd 


o 


-2 '"' 3J 




^ 




>^ 




>^ 






-»^ 


,o 


-M 


'a 


•'-' P _g 






a 






OJ-g § "^ 






1 


<^ 


o 


««H 


%a o'd 


i 




'3 


o 


















tM 














^ 




;h* 


t^ 








•*^ 




<u 


o 








1 




^ 


J= 










o 


o 








P 




<o 


o 








O 






e3 
















03 


M 


02 r/j 




if 


S 


O 


'd 


niJ 


'd 'd 




o 




S 


fl 


P 


a p 




o- 


« 


CJ 


0) 


o a? 




"TS" 


'd" 


a 




5 5 




a 


p 


o 


o 


o o 






a> 


OJ 


^ 


^ 


^ ^ 






a> 


<a> 


-(-3 


-M 


-M -t=i 






a 


fl 


CS 


cS 


03 03 






o 


o 


■s 


1 


rd 'd 






C8 


:« 


-*-» 




-4^ -4^ 






u 


tn 


^ ^ 






nS 


'd 


o 


O 


o o 






0? 


0) 


A 


P. 


a ft 






.^ 


.^ 


P. 


P. 


ft ft 










3 


3 


3 3 






fel 


'£ 


( 


o 


( 


n 


O) 


CO 1 



p 
o 

O 



''lb 






^ ^ ^ ^ 






f^ iM 



64 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

USEFUL INFORMATION. 

British Thermal Unit. — The British Thermal Unit, B. 
T. U., as used by British and American engineers, is the 
amount of heat consumed in raising one pound of water, at 
its maximum density, one degree Fahrenheit; 965.7 B. T. U. 
equal one unit of evaporation. 

Commercial Boiler Horse-Power.— A commercial '' Boiler 
Horse-Power " is the evaporation of thirty pounds of water, 
per hour, from a temperature of 100° F., into steam at 
seventy pounds gauge pressure ; equal to 34.5 units of evap- 
oration (34.5 pounds of water evaporated from a temperature 
of 212 ° F. into steam at the same temperature) ; also equal 
to 33,303 B. T. U. per hour. Five pounds of average bitu- 
minous coal should develop one horse-power per hour. 

Development of Horse-Power. — Twelve square feet of 
heating surface (twelve square feet of area exposed to water 
on one side and to heat on the other) ; or its equivalent, one 
third square foot of effective grate area, should develop one 
horse-power per hour. 

Engine Horse-Power. — An '^ Engine Horse-Power " is 
the measure of energy expended in raising 33,000 pounds 
one foot high in one minute. The effective horse-power of 
any well-designed "Engine" is approximately 80% of its 
I. H. P. 

7. H, P. = PS.(^^ ; also J. H, R^AiU^, 
V2.057 33,000 

P = mean effective gauge pressure in pounds per sq. in. 

S = piston speed, in feet per minute. 

B = net diameter of cylinder in inches. 

L = length of stroke, n number of strokes, half rev. per min. 

A ^^ net area of piston in square inches also equal D. 

Water. — Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
capacity four times. Friction of liquids in pipes increases 
as the square of the velocity. 

The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated 
at 14.7 pounds per square inch, so that with a perfect vacu- 
um it will sustain a column of mercury 2?.9 inches, or a 
column of water 33.9 feet high. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 65 

To find the pressure in 'pounds per square inch of a column of 
water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. 
Approximately, we say that every foot elevation is equal to 
half pound pressure per square inch ; this allows for 
ordinary friction. 

To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given 
quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the 
standard of speed) divide the number of gallons by 4, then 
extract the square root, and the product will be the diame- 
ter in inches of the pump cylinder. 

To find quantity of tvater elevated in one minute running at 
100 feet of piston speed per minute, square the diameter of 
the water cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. Example : 
Capacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. The square of the 
diameter (5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied by 4, gives 100, 
the number of gallons per minute (approximately). 

To find the horse-power necessary to elevate water to a given 
height, multiply the total weight of the water in pounds by 
the height in feet, and divide the product by 33,000 (an al- 
lowance of 25 per cent, should be added for water friction and 
a further allowance of 25 per cent, for loss in steam cylinder). 

The area of the steam piston, multiplied by the steam pres- 
sure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. 
The area of the water piston, multiplied by the pressure of wa- 
ter per square inch, gives the resistance. A margin must be 
made between the power s.nd the resistance to move the pistons 
at the required speed — say from 20 to 40 per cent, according 
to speed and other conditions. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiplying 
the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches will give 
the total number of cubic inches ; divide this amount by 
231 (which is the cubical contents of a U. S. gallon in inches), 
and the product is the capacity in gallons. 

To find the number of gallons in a tanh, multiply the inside 
bottom diameter in inches by the inside top diameter in 
inches, then this product by 34 ; point off four figures and 
the result will be the average number of gallons to one inch 
in*depth of the tank. 



66 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM, 



&> • 


^ . 1 




1^ 


o 


..". 


l^(§ 


■§ g 


Co ?~ 




c<5 "crJ 






^^ 


^^ 


-14 


1 


-13 


2 


-12 


3 


11 


4 


10 


5 


9 


6 


8 


7 


7 


8 


6 


9 


5 


10 





15 


+ 5 


20 


10 


25 


15 


30 


20 


35 


25 


40 


30 


45 


35 


50 


40 


55 


45 


60 


50 


65 


55 


70 


60 


75 


65 


80 


70 


85 


75 


90 


80 


95 


85 


100 


90 


105 


95 


110 


100 


115 


105 


120 


115 


130 


135 


150 


155 


170 


175 


190 


210 


225 


260 


275 


310 


325 



-I 

Si 



101.99 
126.27 
141.62 
153.09 
162.34 
170.14 
176.90 
182.92 
188.33 
193.25 
213.03 
227.95 
240.04 
250.27 
259.19 
267.13 
274.29 
280.85 
286.89 
292.51 
297.77 
302.71 
307.38 
311.80 
316.02 
320.04 
323.89 
327.58 
331.13 
334.56 
337.86 
341.05 
347.12 
358.26 
368.29 
377.44 
391.79 
409.50 
424.82 






^i 






1113.1 
1120.5 
•1125.1 
1128.6 
1131.5 
1133.8 
1135.9 
1137.7 
1139.4 
1140.9 
1146.9 
1151.5 
1155.1 
1158.3 
1161.0 
1163.4 
1165.6 
1167.6 
1169.4 
1171.2 
1127.7 
1174.3 
1175.7 
1177.0 
1178.3 
1179.6 
1180.7 
1181.9 
1182.9 
1184.0 
1185.0 
1186.0 
1187.8 
1191.2 
1194.3 
1197.1 
1201.4 
1206.8 
1211.5 



I 

•iS 

It 






1043.0 
1026.1 
1015.3 
1007.2 
1000.8 
995.2 
990.5 
986.2 
982.5 
979.0 
965.1 
954.6 
946.0 
938.9 
932.6 
927.0 
922.0 
917.4 
913.1 
909.3 
905.5 
902.1 
898.8 
895.6 
892.5 
889.6 
886.7 
884.0 
881.3 
878.8 
876.3 
874.0 
869.4 
861.2 
853.8 
847.0 
836.3 
823.2 
811.9 



5^ fS 






0.00299 
0.00576 
0.00844 
0.01107 
0.01366 
0.01622 
0.01874 



02125 
02374 
02621 
03826 
05023 
06199 
07360 
08508 
09644 
10770 
0.11880 
0.12990 
0.14090 
0.15190 
0.1628 
0.1736 
0.1843 
0.1957 
.0.2058 
0.2165 
0.2271 
0.2378 
0.2484 
0.2589 
0.2695 
0.2904 
0.3321 
0.3737 
0.4153 
0.4876 
0.5913 
0.6960 



•5 Si 



334.50 

173.60 

118.50 

90.33 

73.21 

61.65 

53.39 

47.06 

42.12 

38.15 

26.14 

19.91 

16.13 

13.59 

11.75 

10.37 

9.28 

8.42 

7.69 

7.09 

6.58 

6.14 

5.76 

5.42 

5.12 

4.86 

4.62 

4.40 

4.20 

4.02 

3.86 

3.71 

3.44 

3.01 

2.67 

2.40 

2.05 

1.69 

1.43 



Note. — The equivalent evaporation, at any temperature, is equal to the 
given evaporation multiplied by the factor of its pressure and divided by the 
factor of the desired pressure. 

The equivalent evaporation from any other temperature than 212° F, 
by adding to the given factor .00104 multiplied by the number of degrees 
temperature below 212. 



ITS PKEPARATION AND USES 



67 



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68 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



SHEET METALSo 

WEIGHTS OF, PER SQUARE FOOT. 



II 

r 


Wrought 
Iron. 


Cast Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


Brass. 


Lead. 


Zinc. 


iV 


2.51 


2.34 


2.55 


2.89 


2.67 


3.69 


2.34 




5.03 


4.69 


5.10 


5.78 


5.35 


7.38 


4.68 


A 


7.58 


7.03 


7.66 


8.67 


8.02 


11.07 


7.02 


4 


10.07 


9.38 


10.21 


11.56 


10.70 


14.76 


9.36 


12.58 


11.73 


12.76 


14.45 


13.37 


18.45 


11.70 


^ 


15.10 


14.07 


15.33 


17.34 


16.05 


22.14 


14.04 


t\ 


17.62 


16.42 


17.87 


20.23 


18.72 


25.83 


16.34 


* 


20.14 


18.77 


20.42 


23.12 


21.40 


29.53 


18.72 


^ 


22.65 


21.11 


22.97 


26.01 


24.07 


33.22 


21.08 


? 


25.17 


23.46 


25.52 


28.90 


26.75 


36.91 


23.44 


n 


27.69 


25.81 


28.08 


31.97 


29.42 


40.60 


25.80 




30.21 


28.15 


30.63 


34.68 


32.10 


44.29 


28.13 


H 


32.72 


30.50 


33.18 


37.57 


35.19 


47.98 


30.49 


T 


35.24 


32.85 


35.73 


40.69 


38.28 


51.67 


32.81 


if 


37.76 


35.19 


28.28 


43.35 


41.37 


55.37 


35.17 


1 


40.28 


37.54 


40.83 


46.25 


43.75 


59.06 


37.50 



NATLS AKO SPIKES, 





Cut. 






Wire. 




Trade 

Size. 


Number 

per 
Pound. 


Length in 
Inches. 


Nails. 


Spikes. 


Number 

per 
Pound. 


Length in 
Inches. 


Number 

per 
Pound. 


Length in 
Inches. 


3d 

4d 

6d 

8d 

10 d 

16 d 

20 d 

30 d 

40 d 

60 d 


400 

300 

150 

85 

60 

40 

20 

16 

14 

8 


21/2 
3 

3^2 
4 

. t^ 

6 


640 

380 

210 

115 

77 

48 

31 

22 

17 

11 


1\ 

2 

4^/2 

5 
6 


30 
23 
13 
10 

7 

5 

41/2 


3^ 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



69 



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70 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



IRON CHAINS (^* PROOF '^), 



Diameter 
of Bar. 


Weight per 
Lineal Foot. 


Breaking 
Strain. 


Diameter 
of Bir. 


Weight per 
Lineal Foot. 


Breaking 
Strain. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Pounds, 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


o.\ 


0.8 


3000 


1.% 


18.3 


88300 


0.% 


1.7 


7000 


1.^2 


21.7 


105200 


0.^ 


2.5 


12300 


1.% 


26.0 


123500 


0.% 


4.3 


19200 


1.34 


28.0 


143300 


0.% 


5.8 


27000 


1-^/8 


32.0 


164500 


0.^/8 


8.0 


37000 


2.0 


38.0 


187000 


1.0 


10.7 


49200 


2.1/4 


54.0 


224400 


1.% 


12.5 


59200 


2.V^ 


71.0 


277000 


IM4, 


16.0 


73000 


2.3/4 


88.0 


335300 



MANILA KOPE (3 PLY) 



Actual 
Circum- 
ference. 


Approx- 
imale 
Diam. 


Weight 

per Lin 

Foot. 


Breaking 
Strain. 


Actual 
Circum- 
ference. 


Approx- 
imate 
Diam. 


Weight 

perLin. 

Foot. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Pounds 


0.% 


0.24 


0.19 


560 


6. 


1.9 


1.2 


1. 


0.32 


0.33 


780 


6.^2 


2.0 


1.4 


1.^ 


0.5 


0.07 


1560 


7. 


2.2 


1.6 


2. 


0.6 


0.13 


2730 


7.1/2 


2.4 


1.9 


z.\ 


0.8 


0.21 


4270 


8. 


2.5 


2.1 


3. 


0.9 


2.90 


6100 


9. 


2.8 


2.7 


3.^ 


1.1 


0.40 


8500 


10. 


3.2 


3.3 


4. 


1.3 


0.53 


11500 


11. 


3.5 


4.0 


4.^ 


1.4 


0.67 


14700 


12. 


3.8 


4.7 



Breaking 

Strain. 

Pounds. 



25500 
29100 
32700 
36000 
39800 
47000 
54000 
61300 
68500 



ITS PREPARATION AKD USES 



71 



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72 



CREOSOTEI) TIMBER 



WIRE GAUGES, 



Wire Gauge 


INCHES. 












Number, 


London or 
Old English. 


English 

Legal 

Standard. 


Sfubbs 
or Birm- 
ingham. 


Browne and 
Sharpe. 


Roebling, 


000000 




0.464 


. . . 




0.460 


00000 


, . 


0.432 






0.430 


0000 


0.4540 


0.400 


6.454 


0.46000 


0.393 


000 


0.4250 


0.372 


0.425 


0.40964 


0.362 


00 


0.3800 


0.348 


0.380 


0.36480 


0.331 





0.3400 


0.324 


0.340 


0.32486 


0.307 


1 


0.3000 


0.300 


0.300 


0.28930 


0.283 


2 


0.2840 


0.276 


0.284 


0.25763 


0.263 


3 


0.2590 


0.252 


0.259 


0.22942 


0.244 


4 


0.2380 


0.232 


0.238 


0.20431 


0.225 


5 


0.2200 


0.212 


0.220 


0.18194 


0.207 


6 


0.2030 


0.192 


0.203 


0.16202 


0.192 


7 


0.1800 


0.176 


0.180 


0.14428 


0.177 


8 


0.1650 


0.160 


0.165 


0.12849 


0.162 


9 


0.1480 


0.144 


0.148 


0.11443 


0.148 


10 


0.1340 


0.128 


0.134 


0.10189 


0.135 


11 


0.1200 


0.116 


0.120 


0.09074 


0.120 


12 


0.1090 


0.104 


0.109 


0.08081 


0.105 


13 


0.0950 


0.092 


0.095 


0.07196 


0.092 


14 


0.0830 


0.080 


0.083 


0.06408 


0.080 


15 


0.0720 


0.072 


0.072 


0.05706 


0.072 


16 


0.0650 


0.064 


0.065 


0.05082 


0.063 


17 


0.0580 


0.056 


0.058 


0.04525 


0.054 


18 


0.0490 


0.048 


0.049 


0.04030 


0.047 


19 


0.0400 


0.040 


0.042 


0.03589 


0.041 


20 


0.0350 


0.036 


0.035 


0.03196 


0.035 


21 


0.0315 


0.032 


0.032 


0.02846 


0.032 


22 


0.0295 


0.028 


0.028 


0.02534 


0.028 


23 


0.0270 


0.024 


0.025 


0.02257 


0.025 


24 


0.0250 


0.022 


0.022 


0.02010 


0.023 


25 


0.0230 


0.020 


0.020 


0.01790 


0.020 


26 


0.0205 


0.018 


0.018 


0.01594 


0.018 


27 


0.01875 


0.0164 


0.016 


0.01419 


0.017 


28 


0.01650 


0.0148 


0.014 


0.01264 


0.016 


29 


0.01550 


0.0136 


0.013 


0.01125 


0.015 


30 


0.01375 


0.0124 


0.012 


0.01002 


0.014 


31 


0.01225 


0.0116 


0.010 


0.00893 


0.0135 


32 


0.01125 


0.0108 


0.009 


0.00795 


0.0130 


33 


0.01025 


0.0100 


0.008 


0.00708 


0.0110 


34 


0.00950 


0.0092 


0.007 


0.00630 


0.0100 


35 


0.00900 . 


0.0084 


0.005 


0.00561 


0.0095 


36 


0.00750 


0.0076 


0.004 


0.00500 


0.0090 



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74 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF 
CIRCLES. 



h 






v! 


1 




^ 






<» 






^ 






^ 






1 


A7ea. 


Circum- 


1 


Area. 


Circum- 




Area. 


Circum- 


e 




ference. 


e 




ference. 






ference. 


f5 






? 






^ 












4.0 


12.5664 


12.5664 


8.0 


50.2655 


25.1327 


0.1 


0.007854 


0.31416 


.1 


13.2025 


12.8805 


.1 


51.5300 


25.4469 


.2 


0.031416 


.62832 


.2 


13.8544 


13.1947 


.2 


52.8102 


25.7611 


.3 


.070686 


.94248 


.3 


14.5220 


13.5088 


.3 


54.1061 


26.0752 


.4 


.12566 


1.2566 


.4 


15.2053 


13.8230 


.4 


55.4177 


26.3894 


.5 


.19635 


1.5708 


.5 


15.9043 


14.1372 


.5 


56.7450 


26.7035 


.6 


.28274 


1.8850 


.6 


16.6190 


14.4513 


.6 


58.0880 


27.0177 


.7 


.38485 


2.1991 


.7 


17.3494 


14.7655 


.7 


59.4468 


27.3319 


.8 


.50266 


2.5133 


.8 


18.0956 


15.0796 


.8 


60.8212 


27.6460 


.9 


.63617 


2.8274 


.9 


18.8574 


15.3938 


.9 


62.2114 


27.9602 


1.0 


0.7854 


3.1416 


5.0 


19.6350 


15.7080 


9.0 


63.6173 


28.2743 


.1 


.9503 


3.4558 


.1 


20.4282 


16.0221 


.1 


65.0388 


28.5885 


.2 


1.1310 


3.7699 


.2 


21.2372 


16.3363 


.2 


66.4761 


28.9027 


.3 


1.3273 


4.0841 


.3 


22.0618 


16.6504 


.3 


67.9291 


29.2168 


.4 


1.5394 


4.3982 


.4 


22.9022 


16.9646 


.4 


69.3978 


29.5310 


.5 


1.7671 


4.7124 


.5 


23.7583 


17.2788 


.5 


70.8822 


29.8451 


.6 


2.0106 


5.0265 


.6 


24.6301 


17.5929 


.6 


72.3823 


30.1593 


.7 


2.2698 


5.3407 


.7 


25.5176 


17.9071 


.7 


73.8981 


30.4734 


.8 


2.5447 


5.6549 


.8 


26.4208 


18.2212 


.8 


75.4296 


30.7876 


.9 


2.8353 


5.9690 


.9 


27.3397 


18.5354 


.9 


76.9769 


31.1018 


2.0 


3.1416 


6.2832 


6.0 


28.2743 


18.8496 


10.0 


78.5398 


31.4159 


.1 


3.4636 


6.5973 


.1 


29.2247 


19.1637 


.1 


80.1185 


31.7301 


.2 


3.8013 


6.9115 


.2 


30.1907 


19.4779 


.2 


81.7128 


32.0442 


.3 


4.1548 


7.2257 


.3 


31.1725 


19.7920 


.3 


83.3229 


32.3584 


.4 


4.5239 


7.5398 


.4 


32.1699 


20.1062 


.4 


84.9487 


32.6726 


.5 


4.9087 


7.8540 


.5 


33.1831 


20.4204 


.5 


86.5901 


32.9867 


.6 


5.3093 


8.1681 


.6 


34.2119 


20.7345 


.6 


88.2473 


33.3009 


.7 


5.7256 


8.4823 


.7 


35.2565 


21.0487 


.7 


89.9202 


33.6150 


.8 


6.1575 


8.7965 


.8 


36.3168 


21.3628 


.8 


91.6088 


33.9292 


.9 


6.6052 


9.1106 


.9 


37.3928 


21.6770 


.9 


93.3132 


34.2134 


3.0 


7.0686 


9.4248 


7.0 


38.4845 


21.9911 


11.0 


95.0332 


34.5575 


.1 


7.5477 


9.7389 


.1 


39.5919 


22.3053 


.1 


96.7689 


34.8717 


.2 


8.0425 


10.0531 


.2 


40.7150 


22.6195 


.2 


98.5203 


35.1858 


.3 


8.5530 


10.3673 


.3 


41.8539 


22.9336 


.3 


100.2875 


35.5000 


.4 


9.0792 


10.6814 


.4 


43.0084 


23.2478 


.4 


102.0703 


35.8142 


p; 


9.6211 


10.9956 


.5 


44.1786 


23.5619 


.5 


103.8689 


36.1283 


'.6 


10.1788 


11.3097 


.6 


45.3646 


23.8761 


.6 


105.6832 


36.4425 


.7 


10.7521 


11.6239 


.7 


46.5663 


24.1903 


.7 


107.5132 


36.7566 


.e 


11.3411 


11.9381 


.8 


47.7836 


24.5044 


.8 


109.3588 


37.0708 


c 


11.9459 


12.2522 


.9 


49.0167 


24.8186 


.9 


111.2202 


37.3850 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



75 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF 
CIRCLES. 



1 


A rea. 


Circum- 




Area. 


Circum- 


f 


Area. 


Circum- 


Q 




ference. 


Q 




ference. 


Q 




ference. 


? 






16.0 






20.0 






12.0 


113.0973 


37.6991 


201.0619 


50.2655 


314.1593 


62.8319 


.1 


114.9901 


38.0133 


.1 


203.5831 


50.5796 


.1 


317.3087 


63.1460 


.2 


116.8987 


38.3274 


.2 


206.1199 


50.8938 


.2 


320.4739 


63.4602 


.3 


118.8229 


38.6416 


.3 


208.6724 


51.2080 


.3 


323.6547 


63.7743 


.4 


120.7628 


38.9557 


.4 


211.2407 


51.5221 


.4 


326.8513 


64.0885 


.5 


122.7185 


39.2699 


.5 


213.8246 


51.8363 


.5 


330.0636 


64.4026 


.6 


124.6898 


39.5841 


.6 


216.4243 


52.1504 


.6 


333.2916 


64.7168 


.7 


126.6769 


39.8982 


.7 


219.0397 


52.4646 


.7 


336.5353 


65.0310 


.8 


128.6796 


40.2124 


.8 


221.6708 


52.7788 


.8 


339.7947 


65.3451 


.9 


130.6981 


40.5265 


.9 


224.3176 


53.0929 


.9 


343.0698 


65.6593 


13.0 


132.7323 


40.8407 


17.0 


226.9801 


53.4071 


21.0 


346.4606 


65.9734 


.1 


134.7822 


41.1549 


.1 


229.6583 


53.7212 


.1 


349.6671 


66.2876 


.2 


136.8478 


41.4690 


.2 


232.3522 


54.0354 


.2 


352.9894 


66.6018 


.3 


138.9291 


41.7832 


.3 


235.0618 


54.3496 


.3 


356.3273 


66.9159 


.4 


141.0261 


42.0973 


.4 


237.7871 


54.6637 


.4 


359.6809 


67.2301 


.5 


143.1388 


42.4115 


.5 


240.5282 


54.9779 


.5 


363.0503 


67.5442 


.6 


145.2672 


42.7257 


.6 


243.2849 


55.2920 


.6 


366.4354 


67.8584 


.7 


147.4114 


43.0398 


.7 


246.0574 


55.6062 


.7 


369.8361 


68.1726 


.8 


149.5712 


43.3540 


.8 


248.8456 


55.9203 


.8 


373.2526 


68.4867 


.9 


151.7468 


43.6681 


.9 


251.6494 


56.2345 


.9 


376.6848 


68.8009 


14.0 


153.9380 


43.9823 


18.0 


254.4690 


56.5486 


22.0 


380.1327 


69.1150 


.1 


156.1450 


44.2965 


.1 


257.3043 


56.8628 


.1 


383.5963 


69.4992 


.2 


158.3677 


44.6106 


.2 


260.1553 


57.1770 


.2 


387.0756 


69.7434 


.3 


160.6061 


44.9248 


.3 


263.0220 


57.4911 


.3 


390.5707 


70.0575 


.4 


162.8602 


45.2389 


.4 


265.9044 


57.8053 


.4 


394.0814 


70.3717 


.5 


165.1300 


45.5531 


.5 


268.8025 


58.1195 


.5 


397.6078 


70.6858 


.6 


167.4155 


45.8673 


.6 


271.7164 


58.4336 


.6 


401.1500 


71.0000 


.7 


169.7167 


46.1814 


.7 


274.6459 


58.7478 


.7 


404.7078 


71.3142 


.8 


172.0336 


46.4956 


.8 


277.5911 


59.0619 


.8 


408.2814 


71.6283 


.9 


174.3662 


46.8097 


.9 


280.5521 


59.3761 


.9 


411.8707 


71.9425 


15.0 


176.7146 


47.1239 


19.0 


283.5287 


59.6903 


23.0 


415.4756 


72.2566 


.1 


179.0786 


47.4380 


.1 


286.5211 


60.0044 


.1 


419.0963 


72.5708 


.2 


181.4584 


47.7522 


.2 


289.5292 


60.3186 


.2 


422.7327 


72.8849 


.3 


183.8539 


48.0664 


.3 


292.5530 


60.6327 


.3 


426.3848 


73.1991 


.4 


186.2650 


48.3805 


.4 


295.5925 


60.9469 


.4 


430.0526 


73.5133 


.5 


188.6919 


48.6947 


.5 


298.6477 


61.2611 


.5 


433.7361 


73.8274 


.6 


191.1345 


49.0088 


.6 


301.7186 


61.5752 


.6 


437.4354 


74.1416 


.7 


193.5928 


49.3230 


.7 


304.8052 


61.8894 


.7 


441.1503 


74.4557 


.8 


196.0668 


49.6372 


.8 


307.9075 


62.2035 


.8 


444.8809 


74.7699 


.9 


198.5565 


49.9513 


.9 


311.0255 


62.5177 


.9 


448.6273 


75.0841 



76 



CREOSOTE!) TIMBER 



AKEAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF 
CIRCLES. 



^' 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


5^ 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


?3 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


^ 






1 






^ 






24.0 


452.3893 


75.3982 


28.0 


615.7522 


87.9646 


32.0 


804.2477 


100.5310 


.1 


456.1671 


75.7124 


.1 


620.1582 


88.2788 


.1 


809.2821 


100.8451 


.2 


459.9606 


76.0265 


.2 


624.5800 


88.5929 


.2 


814.3322 


101.1593 


.3 


463.7698 


76.3407 


.3 


629.0175 


88.9071 


.3 


819.3980 


101.4734 


.4 


467.5947 


76.6549 


.4 


633.4707 


89.2212 


.4 


824.4796 


101.7876 


.5 


471.4352 


76.9690 


.5 


637.9397 


89.5354 


.5 


829.5768 


102.1018 


.6 


475.2916 


77.2832 


.6 


642.4243 


89.8495 


.6 


834.6898 


102.4159 


.7 


479.1636 


77.5973 


.7 


646.9246 


90.1637 


.7 


839.8185 


102.7301 


.8 


483.0513 


77.9115 


.8 


651.4407 


90.4779 


.8 


844.9628 


103.0442 


.9 


486.9547 


78.2257 


.9 


655.9724 


90.7920 


.9 


850.1229 


103.3584 


25.0 


490.8739 


78.5398 


29.0 


660.5199 


91.1062 


33.0 


855.2986 


103.6726 


.1 


494.8087 


78.8540 


.1 


665.0830 


91.4203 


.1 


860.4902 


103.9867 


.2 


498.7592 


79.1681 


.2 


669.6619 


91.7345 


.2 


865.6973 


104.3009 


.3 


502.7255 


79.4823 


.3 


674.2565 


92.0487 


.3 


870.9202 


104.6150 


.4 


506.7075 


79.7965 


.4 


678.8668 


92.3628 


.4 


876.1588 


104.9292 


.5 


510.7052 


80.1106 


.5 


683.4928 


92.6770 


.5 


881.4131 


105.2434 


.6 


514.7185 


80.4248 


.6 


688.1345 


92.9911 


.6 


886.6831 


105.5575 


.7 


518.7476 


80.7389 


.7 


692.7919 


93.3053 


.7 


891.9688 


105.8717 


.8 


522.7924 


81.0531 


.8 


697.4650 


93.6195 


.8 


897.2703 


106.1858 


.9 


526.8529 


81.3672 


.9 


702.1538 


93.9336 


.9 


902.5874 


106.5000 


26.0 


530.9292 


81.6814 


30.0 


706.8583 


94.2478 


34.0 


907.9203 


106.8142 


.1 


535.0211 


81.9956 


.1 


711.5786 


94.5619 


.1 


913.2688 


107.1283 


.2 


539.1287 


82.3097 


.2 


716.3145 


94.8761 


.2 


918.6331 


107.4425 


.3 


543.2521 


82.6239 


.3 


721.0662 


95.1903 


.3 


924.0131 


107.7566 


.4 


547.3911 


82.9380 


.4 


725.8336 


95.5044 


.4 


929.4088 


108.0708 


.5 


551.5459 


83.2522 


.5 


730.6167 


95.8186 


.5 


934.8202 


108.3849 


.6 


555.7163 


83.5664 


.6 


735.4154 


96.1327 


.6 


940.2473 


108.6991 


.7 


559.9025 


83.8805 


.7 


740.2299 


96.4469 


.7 


945.6901 


109.0133 


.8 


564.1044 


84.1947 


.8 


745.0601 


96.7611 


.8 


951.1486 


109.3274 


.9 


568.3220 


84.5088 


.9 


749.9060 


97.0752 


.9 


956.6228 


109.6416 


27.0 


572.5553 


84.8230 


31.0 


754.7676 


97.3894 


35.0 


962.1128 


109.9557 


.1 


576.8043 


85.1372 


.1 


759.6450 


97.7035 


.1 


967.6184 


110.2699 


.2 


581.0690 


85.4513 


.2 


764.5380 


98.0177 


.2 


973.1397 


110.5841 


.3 


585.3494 


85.7655 


.3 


769.4467 


98.3319 


.3 


978.6768 


110.8982 


.4 


589.6455 


86.0796 


.4 


774.3712 


98.6460 


.4 


984.2296 


111.2124 


.5 


593.9574 


86.3938 


.5 


779.3113 


98.9602 


.5 


989.7980 


111.5265 


.6 


598.2849 


86.7080 


.6 


784.2672 


99.2743 


.6 


995.3822 


111.8407 


.7 


602.6282 


87.0221 


.7 


789.2388 


99.5885 


.7 


1000.9821 


112.1549 


.8 


606.9871 


87.3363 


.8 


794.2260 


99.9026 


.8 


1006.5977 


112.4690 


.9 


611.3618 


87.6504. 


.9 


799.2290 


100.2168 


.9 


1012.2290 


112.7832 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



77 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERElSrCES OF 
CIRCLES. 



36.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



37.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



.9 



38.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



.9 



39.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



.9 



Area. 



1017.8760 
1023.5387 
1029.2172 
1034.9113 
1040.6212 
1046.3467 
1052.0880 
1057.8449 
1063.6176 
1069.4060 



1075.2101 
1081.0299 
1086.8654 
1092.7166 
1098.5835 
1104.4662 
1110.3645 
1116.2786 
1122.2083 
1128.1538 



1134.1149 
1140.0918 
1146.0844 
1152.0927 
1158.1167 
1164.1564 
1170.2118 
1176.2830 
1182.3698 
1188.4724 



1194.5906 
1200.7246 
1206.8742 
1213.0396 
1219.2207 
1225.4175 
1231.6300 
1237,8582 
1244.1021 
1250.3617 



Circum- 
ference. 



113.0960 
113.4115 
113.7257 
114.0398 
114.3540 
114.6681 
114.9823 
115.2965 
115.6106 
115.9248 



116.2389 
116.5531 
116.8672 
117.1814 
117.4956 
117.8097 
118.1239 
118.4380 
118.7522 
119.0664 



119.3805 
119.6947 
120.0088 
120.3230 
120.6372 
120.9513 
121.2655 
121.5796 
121.8938 
122.2080 



122.5221 
122.8363 
123.1504 
123.4646 
123.7788 
124.0929 
124.4071 
124.7212 
125.0354 
125.3495 



40.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



41.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



42.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



Area. 



.9 



43.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



.9 



1256.6371 
1262.9281 
1269.2348 
1275.5573 
1281.8955 
1288.2493 
1294.6189 
1301.0042 
1307.4052 
1313.8219 



1320.2543 
1326.7024 
1333.1663 
1339.6458 
1346.1410 
1352.6520 
1359.1786 
1365.7210 
1372.2791 
1378.8529 



1385.4424 

1392.0476 

1398.6685 

1405.3051 

1411.9574 

1418.6254 

1425.3092 

1432. OC 

1438.7238 

1445.4546 



1452.2012 
1458.9635 
1465.7415 
1472.5352 
1479.3446 
1486.1697 
1493.0105 
1499.8670 
1506.7393 
1513.6272 



Circum- 
ference. 



125.6637 
125.9779 
126.2920 
126.6062 
126.9203 
127.2345 
127.5487 
127.8628 
128.1770 
128.4911 



128.8053 
129.1195 
129.4336 
129.7478 
130.0619 
130.3761 
130.6903 
131.0044 
131.3186 
131.6327 



131.9469 
132.2611 
132.5752 
132.8894 
133.2035 
133.5177 
133.8318 
134.1460 
134.4602 
134.7743 



135.0885 
135.4026 
135.7168 
136.0310 
136.3451 
136.6593 
136.9734 
137.2876 
137.6018 
137.9159 



44.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 



45.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



.9 



46.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



.9 



47.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 



.9 



Area. 



Circum- 
ference. 



1520.5308 
1527.4502 
1534.3853 
1541.3360 
1548.3025 
1555.2847 
1562.2826 
1569.2962 
1576.3255 
1583.3706 



1590.4313 
1597.5077 
1604.5999 
1611.7077 
1618.8313 
1625.9705 
1633.1255 
1640.2962 
1647.4826 
1654.6847 



1661.9025 
1669.1660 
1676.3853 
1683.6502 
1690.9308 
1698.2272 
1705.5392 
1712.8670 
1720.2105 
1727.5697 



1734.9445 
1742.3351 
1749.7414 
1757.1635 
1764.6012 
1772.0546 
1779.5237 
1787.0086 
1794.5091 
1802.0254 



138.2301 
138.5442 
138.8584 
139.1726 
139.4867 
139.8009 
140.1153 
140.4292 
140.7434 
141.0575 



141.3717 
141.6858 
142.0000 
142.3142 
142.6283 
142.9425 
143.2566 
143.5708 
143.8849 
144.1991 



144.5133 
144.8274 
145.1416 
145.4557 
145.7699 
146.0841 
146.3982 
146.7124 
147.0265 
147.3407 



147.6550 
147.9690 
148.2832 
148.5973 
148.9115 
149.2257 
149.5398 
149.8540 
150.1681 
150.4823 



78 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



AREAS ANiy CIRCUMFERENCES OF 
CIRCLES. 



5^ 






5^^ 
« 






1 






"S 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


e 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


1 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


1 






f? 






^ 






48.0 


1809.5974 


150.7964 


52.0 


2123.7166 


163.3628 


56.0 


2463.0086 


175.9292 


.1 


1817.1050 


151.1106 


.1 


2131.8926 


163.6770 


.1 


2471.8130 


176.2433 


.2 


1824.6684 


151.4248 


.2 


2140.0843 


163.9911 


.2 


2480.6330 


176.5575 


.3 


1832.2475 


151.7389 


.3 


2148.2917 


164.3053 


.3 


2489.4687 


176.8717 


.4 


1839.8423 


152.0531 


.4 


2156.5149 


164.6195 


.4 


2498.3201 


177.1858 


.5 


1847.4528 


152.3672 


.5 


2164.7537 


164.9336 


.5 


2507.1873 


177.5000 


.6 


1855.0790 


152.6814 


.6 


2173.0082 


165.2479 


.6 


2516.0701 


177.8141 


.7 


1862.7210 


152.9956 


.7 


2181.2785 


165.5619 


.7 


2524.9687 


178.1283 


.8 


1870.3786 


153.3097 


.8 


2189.5644 


165.8761 


.8 


2533.8830 


178.4425 


.9 


1878.0519 


153.6239 


.9 


2197.8661 


166.1903 


.9 


2542.8129 


178.7566 


49.0 


1885.7409 


153.9380 


53.0 


2206.1834 


166.5044 


57.0 


2551.7586 


179.0708 


.1 


1893.4457 


154.2522 


.1 


2214.5165 


166.8186 


.1 


2560.7200 


179.3849 


.2 


1901.1662 


154.5664 


.2 


2222.8653 


167.1327 


.2 


2569.6971 


179.6991 


.3 


1908.9024 


154.8805 


.3 


2231.2298 


167.4469 


.3 


2578.6899 


180.0333 


.4 


1916.6543 


155.1947 


.4 


2239.6100 


167.7610 


.4 


2587.6985 


180.3274 


.5 


1924.4218 


155.5088 


.5 


2248.0059 


168.0752 


.5 


2596.7227 


180.6416 


.6 


1932.2051 


155.8230 


.6 


2256.4175 


168.3894 


.6 


2605.7626 


180.9557 


.7 


1940.0042 


156.1372 


.7 


2264.8448 


168.7035 


.7 


2614.8183 


181.2699 


.8 


1947.8189 


156.4513 


.8 


2273.2879 


169.0177 


.8 


2623.8896 


181.5841 


.9 


1955.6493 


156.7655 


.9 


2281.7466 


169.3318 


.9 


2632.4767 


181.8982 


50.0 


1963.4954 


157.0796 


54.0 


2290.2210 


169.6460 


58.0 


2642.0794 


182.2124 


.1 


1971.3572 


157.3938 


.1 


2298.7112 


169.9602 


.1 


2651.1979 


182.5265 


.2 


1979.2348 


157.7080 


.2 


2307.2171 


170.2743 


.2 


2660.3321 


182.8407 


.3 


1987.1280 


158.0221 


.3 


2315.7386 


170.5885 


.3 


2669.4820 


183.1549 


.4 


1995.0370 


158.3363 


.4 


2324.2759 


170.9026 


.4 


2678.6476 


183.4690 


.5 


2002.9617 


158.6504 


.5 


2332.8289 


171.2168 


.5 


2687.8289 


183.7832 


.6 


2010.9020 


158.9646 


.6 


2341.3976 


171.5310 


.6 


2697.0259 


184.0973 


.7 


2018.8581 


159.2787 


.7 


2349.9820 


171.8451 


.7 


2706.2386 


184.4115 


.8 


2026.8299 


159.5929 


.8 


2358.5821 


172.1593 


.8 


2715.4670 


184.7256 


.9 


2034.8174 


159.9071 


.9 


2367.1979 


172.4735 


.9 


2724.7112 


185.0398 


51.0 


2042.8206 


160.2212 


55.0 


2375.8294 


172.7876 


59.0 


2733.9710 


185.3540 


.1 


2050.8395 


160.5354 


.1 


2384.4767 


173.1017 


.1 


2743.2466 


185.6681 


.2 


2058.8742 


160.8495 


.2 


2393.1396 


173.4159 


.2 


2752.5378 


185.9823 


.3 


2066.9245 


161.1637 


.3 


2401.8183 


173.7301 


.3 


2761.8448 


186.2964 


.4 


2074.9905 


161.4779 


.4 


2410.5126 


174.0442 


.4 


2771.1675 


186.6106 


.5 


2083.0723 


161.7920 


.5 


2419.2227 


174.3584 


.5 


2780.5058 


186.9248 


.6 


2091.1697 


162.1062 


.6 


2427.9485 


174.6726 


.6 


2789.2599 


187.2389 


.7 


2099.2829 


162.4203 


.7 


2436.6899 


174.9867 


.7 


2799.2297 


187.5531 


.8 


2107.4118 


162.7345 


.8 


2445.4471 


175.3009 


.8 


2808.6152 


187.8672 


.9 


2115.5563 


163.0487 


.9 


2454.2200 


175.6150 


.9 


2818.0165 


188.1814 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



79 



AKEAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF 
CIRCLES. 



v.* 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


i 

!;i 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


1 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 








1 






68.0 






60.0 


2827.4334 


188.4956 


64.0 


3216.9909 


201.0620 


3631.6811 


213.6283 


.1 


2836.8660 


188.8097 


.1 


3227.0518 


201.3767 


.1 


3642.3704 


213.9425 


.2 


2846.3844 


189.1239 


.2 


3237.1285 


201.6902 


.2 


3653.0754 


214.2566 


.3 


2855.7784 


189.4380 


.3 


3247.2222 


202.0044 


.3 


3663.7960 


214.5708 


.4 


2865.2582 


189.7522 


.4 


3257.3289 


202.3186 


.4 


3674.5324 


214.8849 


.5 


2874.7536 


190.0664 


.5 


3267.4527 


202.6327 


.5 


3685.2845 


215.1991 


.6 


2884.2648 


190.3805 


.6 


3277.5922 


202.9469 


.6 


3696.0523 


215.5133 


.7 


2893.7917 


190.6947 


.7 


3287.7474 


203.2610 


.7 


3706.8359 


215.8274 


.8 


2903.3343 


191.0088 


.8 


3297.9183 


203.5752 


.8 


3717.6351 


216.1416 


.9 


2912.8926 


191.3230 


.9 


3308.1049 


203.8894 


.9 


3728.4500 


216.4556 


61.0 


2922,4666 


191.6372 


65.0 


3318.3072 


204.3025 


69.0 


3739.2807 


216.7699 


.1 


2932.0563 


191.9513 


.1 


3328.5223 


204.5176 


.1 


3750.1270 


217.0841 


.2 


2941.6617 


192.2655 


.2 


3338.7590 


204.8318 


.2 


3760.9891 


217.3982 


.3 


2951.2828 


192.5796 


.3 


3349.0085 


205.1460 


.3 


3771.8668 


217.7124 


.4 


2960.9197 


192.8938 


.4 


3359.2736 


205.4602 


.4 


3782.7603 


218.0265 


.5 


2970.5722 


193.7029 


.5 


3369.5545 


205.7743 


.5 


3793.6695 


218.3407 


.6 


2980.2405 


193.5221 


.6 


3379.8510 


206.0885 


.6 


3804.5944 


218.6548 


.7 


2989.9244 


193.8363 


.7 


3290.1633 


206.4026 


.7 


3815.5350 


218.9690 


.8 


2999.6241 


194.1504 


.8 


3400.4913 


206.7168 


.8 


3826.4913 


219.2832 


.9 


3009.3395 


194.4646 


.9 


3410.8350 


207.0310 


.9 


3837.4633 


219.5973 


62.0 


3019.0705 


194.7787 


66.0 


3421.1944 


207.3451 


70.0 


3848.4510 


219.9115 


.1 


3028.8173 


195.0929 


.1 


3431.5695 


207.6593 


.1 


3859.4544 


220.2256 


.2 


3038.5798 


195.4071 


.2 


3441.9603 


207.9734 


.2 


3870.4736 


220.5398 


.3 


3048.3580 


195.7212 


.3 


3452.3669 


208.2876 


.3 


3881.5084 


220.8540 


.4 


3058.1520 


196.0354 


.4 


3462.7891 


208.6017 


.4 


3892.5590 


221.1681 


.5 


3067.9616 


196.3495 


.5 


3473.2270 


208.9159 


.5 


3903.6252 


221.4823 


.6 


3077.7869 


196.6637 


.6 


3483.6807 


209.2301 


.6 


3914.7072 


221.7964 


.7 


3087.6279 


196.9779 


.7 


3494.1500 


209.5442 


.7 


3925.8049 


222.1106 


.8 


3097.4847 


197.2920 


.8 


3504.6351 


209.8584 


.8 


3936.9182 


222.4248 


.9 


3107.3571 


197.6062 


.9 


3515.1359 


210.1725 


.9 


3948.0473 


222,7389 


63.0 


3117.2453 


197.9203 


67.0 


3525.6524 


210.4867 


71.0 


3959.1921 


223.0531 


.1 


3127.1492 


198.2345 


.1 


3536.1845 


210.8009 


.1 


3970.3526 


223.3672 


.2 


3137.0688 


198.5847 


.2 


3546.7324 


211.1150 


.2 


3981.5289 


223.6814 


.3 


3147.0040 


198.8628 


.3 


3557.2960 


211.4292 


.3 


3992.7208 


223.9956 


.4 


3156.9550 


199.1770 


.4 


3567.8754 


211.7433 


.4 


4003.9284 


224.3097 


.5 


3166.9217 


199.4911 


.5 


3578.4704 


212.0575 


.5 


4015.1518 


224.6239 


.6 


3176.9043 


199.8053 


.6 


3589.0811 


212.3717 


.6 


4026.3908 


224.9380 


.7 


3186.9023 


200.1195 


.7 


3599.7075 


212.6858 


.7 


4037.6456 


225.2522 


.8 


3196.9161 


200.4336 


.8 


3610.3497 


213.0000 


.8 


4048.9160 


225.5664 


.9 


3206.9456 


200.7478 


.9 


3621.0075 


213.3141 


.9 


4060.2022 


225.8805 



80 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



AKEAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF 
CIRCLES. 



1 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


1 


Area. 


1 

Circum- 
ference. 




Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


? 






f? 






^ 






72.0 


4071.5041 


226.1947 


76.0 


4536.4598 


238.7610 


80.0 


5026.5482 


251.3274 


.1 


4082.8217 


226.5088 


.1 


4548.4051 


239.0752 


.1 


5039.1229 


251.6416 


.2 


4094.1550 


226.8230 


.2 


4560.3673 


239.3894 


.2 


5051.7124 


251.9557 


.3 


4105.5040 


227.1371 


.3 


4572.3446 


239.7035 


.3 


5064.3180 


252.2699 


.4 


4116.8687 


227.4513 


.4 


4584.3377 


240.0177 


.4 


5076.9394 


252.5840 


.5 


4128.2491 


227.7655 


.5 


4596.3464 


240.3318 


.5 


5089.5764 


252.8982 


.6 


4139.6452 


228.0796 


.6 


4608.3708 


240.6460 


.6 


5102.2292 


253.2124 


.7 


4151.0571 


228.3938 


.7 


4620.4110 


240.9602 


.7 


5114.8977 


253.5265 


.8 


4162.4846 


228.7079 


.8 


4632.4669 


241.2743 


.8 


5127.5819 


253.8407 


.9 


4173.9279 


229.0221 


.9 


4644.5384 


241.5885 


.9 


5140.2818 


254.1548 


73.0 


4185.3868 


229.3363 


77.0 


4656.6257 


241.9026 


81.0 


5152.9973 


254.4690 


.1 


4196.8615 


229.6504 


.1 


4668.7287 


242.2168 


.1 


5165.7287 


254.7832 


.2 


4208.3519 


229.9646 


.2 


4680.8474 


242.5310 


.2 


5178.4757 


255.0973 


.3 


4219.8579 


230.2787 


.3 


4692.9818 


242.8451 


.3 


5191.2384 


255.4115 


.4 


4231.3797 


230.5929 


.4 


4705.1319 


243.1592 


.4 


5204.0168 


255.7256 


.5 


4242.9172 


230.9071 


.5 


4717.2977 


243.4734 


.5 


5216.8110 


256.0398 


.6 


4254.4704 


231.2212 


.6 


4729.4792 


243.7876 


.6 


5229.6208 


256.3540 


.7 


4266.0394 


231.5354 


.7 


4741.6765 


244.1017 


.7 


5242.4463 


256.6681 


.8 


4277.6240 


231.8495 


.8 


4753.8894 


244.4159 


.8 


5255.2876 


256.9823 


.9 


4289.2243 


232.1637 


.9 


4767.1181 


244.7301 


.9 


5268.1446 


257.2966 


74.0 


4300.8403 


232.4779 


78.0 


4778.3624 


245.0442 


82.0 


5281.0173 


257.6106 


.1 


4312.4721 


232.7920 


.1 


4790.6225 


245.3580 


.1 


5293.9056 


257.9247 


.2 


4324.1195 


233.1062 


.2 


4802.8983 


245.6725 


.2 


5306.8097 


258.2389 


.3 


4335.7827 


233.4203 


.3 


4815.1897 


245.9867 


.3 


5319.7295 


258.5531 


.4 


4347.4616 


233.7345 


.4 


4827.4969 


246.3009 


.4 


5332.6650 


258.8672 


.5 


4359.1562 


234.0487 


.5 


4839.8198 


246.6150 


.5 


5345.6162 


259.1814 


.6 


4370.8664 


234.3628 


.6 


4852.1584 


246.9292 


.6 


5358.5832 


259.4956 


.7 


4382.5924 


234.6770 


.7 


4864.5128 


247.2433 


.7 


5371.5658 


259.8097 


.8 


4394.3341 


234.9911 


.8 


4876.8828 


247.5575 


.8 


5384.5641 


260.1239 


.9 


4406.0916 


235.3053 


.9 


4889.2685 


247.8717 


.9 


5397.5782 


260.4380 


75.0 


4417.8647 


235.6194 


79.0 


4901.6699 


248.1858 


83.0 


5410.6079 


260.7522 


.1 


4429.6535 


235.9336 


.1 


4914.0871 


248.5000 


.1 


5423.6534 


261.0663 


.2 


4441.4580 


236.2478 


.2 


4926.5199 


248.8141 


.2 


5436.7146 


261.3805 


.3 


4453.2783 


236.5619 


.3 


4938.9685 


249.1283 


.3 


5449.7915 


261.6947 


.4 


4465.1142 


236.8761 


.4 


4951.4328 


249.4425 


.4 


5462.8840 


262.0088 


.5 


4476.9659 


237.1902 


.5 


4963.9127 


249.7566 


.5 


5475.9923 


262.3230 


.6 


4488.8332 


237.5044 


.6 


4976.4084 


250.0708 


.6 


5489.1163 


262.6371 


.7 


4500.7163 


237.8186 


.7 


4988.9198 


250.3850 


.7 


5502.2561 


262.9513 


.8 


4512.6151 


238.1327 


.8 


5001.4469 


250.6991 


.8 


5515.4115 


263.2655 


.9 


4524.5296 


238.4469 


.9 


5013.9897 


251.0133 


.9 


5528.5826 


263.5796 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



81 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF 
CIRCLES. 



4' 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


1 
1 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


1 


Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 


1 






88.0 






92.0 






84.0 


5541.7694 


263.8938 


6082.1234 


276.4602 


6647.6101 


289.0265 


.1 


5554.9720 


264.2079 


.1 


6095.9542 


276.7743 


.1 


6662.0692 


289.3407 


.2 


5568.1902 


264.5221 


.2 


6109.8008 


277.0885 


.2 


6676.5441 


289.6548 


.3 


5581.4242 


264.8363 


,3 


6123.6631 


277.4026 


.3 


6691.0347 


289.9690 


A 


5594.6739 


265.1514 


.4 


6137.5411 


277.7168 


.4 


6705.5410 


290.2832 


.5 


5607.9392 


265.4646 


.5 


6151.4348 


■278.0309 


.5 


6720.0630 


290.5973 


.6 


5621.2203 


265.7787 


.6 


6165.3442 


278.3451 


.6 


6734.6008 


290.9115 


.7 


5634.5171 


266.0929 


.7 


6179.2693 


278.6593 


.7 


6749.1542 


291.2256 


.8 


5647 8296 


266.4071 


.8 


6193.2101 


278.9740 


.8 


6763.7233 


291.5398 


.9 


5661.1578 


266.7212 


.9 


6207.1666 


279.2876 


.9 


6778.3282 


291.8540 


85.0 


5674.5017 


267.0374 


89.0 


6221.1389 


279.6017 


93.0 


6792.9087 


292.1681 


.1 


5687.8614 


267.3495 


.1 


6235.1268 


279.9159 


.1 


6807.5250 


292.4823 


.2 


5701.2367 


267.6637 


.2 


6249.1304 


280.2301 


.2 


6822.1569 


292.7964 


.3 


5714.6277 


267.9779 


.3 


6263.1498 


280.5442 


.3 


6836.8046 


293.1106 


.4 


5728.0345 


268.2920 


.4 


6277.1849 


280.8584 


.4 


6851.4680 


293.4248 


.5 


5741.4569 


268.6062 


.5 


6291.2356 


281.1725 


.§ 


6866.1471 


293.7389 


.6 


5754.8951 


268.9203 


.6 


6305.3021 


281.4867 


.6 


6880.8419 


294.0531 


.7 


5768.3490 


269.2345 


.7 


6319.3843 


281.8009 


.7 


6895.5524 


294.3672 


.8 


5781.8185 


269.5486 


.8 


6333.4822 


282.1150 


.8 


6910.2786 


294.6814 


.9 


5795.3038 


269.8628 


.9 


6347.5958 


282.4292 


.9 


6925.0205 


294.9956 


86.0 


5808.8048 


270.1770 


90.0 


6361.7251 


282.7433 


94.0 


6939.7782 


295.3097 


.1 


5822.3215 


270.4911 


.1 


6375.8701 


283.0575 


.1 


6954.5515 


295.6239 


.2 


5835.8539 


270.8053 


.2 


6390.0309 


283.3717 


.2 


6969.3106 


295.9380 


.3 


5849.4020 


271.1194 


.3 


6404.2073 


283.6858 


.3 


6984.1453 


296.2522 


,4 


5862.9659 


271.4336 


.4 


6418.3995 


284.0000 


.4 


6998.9658 


296.5663 


.5 


5876.5454 


271.7478 


.5 


6432.6073 


284.3141 


.5 


7013.8019 


296.8805 


.6 


5890.1407 


272.0619 


.6 


6446.8309 


284.6283 


.6 


7028.6538 


297.1947 


.7 


5903.7516 


272.3761 


.7 


6461.0701 


284.9425 


.7 


7043.5214 


297.5088 


.8 


5917.3783 


272.6902 


.8 


6475.3251 


285.2566 


.8 


7058.4047 


297.8230 


.9 


5931.0206 


273.0044 


.9 


6489.5958 


285.5708 


.9 


7073.3033 


298.1371 


87.0 


5944.6787 


273.3186 


91.0 


6503.8822 


285.8849 


95.0 


7088.2184 


298.4513 


.1 


5958.3525 


273.6327 


.1 


6518.1843 


286.1991 


.1 


7103.1488 


298.7655 


.2 


5972.0420 


273.9469 


.2 


6532.5021 


286.5133 


.2 


7118.1950 


299.0796 


.3 


5985.7472 


274.2610 


.3 


6546.8356 


286.8274 


,3 


7133.0568 


299.3938 


.4 


5999.4681 


274.5752 


.4 


6561.1848 


287.1416 


.4 


7148.0343 


299.7079 


.5 


6013.2047 


274.8894 


.5 


6575.5498 


287.4557 


.5 


7163.0276 


300.0221 


.6 


6026.9570 


275.2035 


.6 


6589.9304 


287.7699 


.6 


7178.0366 


300.3363 


.7 


6040.7250 


275.5177 


.7 


6604.3268 


288.0840 


.7 


7193.0612 


300.6504 


.8 


6054.5088 


275.8318 


.8 


6618.7388 


288.3982 


.8 


7208.1016 


300.9646 


.9 


6068.3082 


276.1460 


.9 


6633.1666 


288.7124 


.9 


7223.1577 


301.2787 



82 



OREOSOTED TIMBER 



AREAS ANiy CIRCUMFEKENCES OF 
CIRCLES. 



96.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 



99.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 



Area. 



7238.2295 
7253.3170 
7268.4202 
7283.5391 
7298.6737 
7313.8240 
7328.9901 
7344.1718 
7359.3693 
7374.5824 



7697.6893 
7713.2461 
7728.8206 
7744.4107 
.417760.0166 
.57775.6382 
.617791.2754 
.717806.9284 
.8 7822.5971 
.9 7838.2815 



Circuyn- 
ference. 



301.5929 
301.9071 
302.2212 
302.5354 
302.8405 
303.1637 
303.4779 
303.7920 
304.1062 
304.4203 

311.0177 
311.3318 
311.6460 
311.9602 
312.2743 
312.5885 
312.9026 
313.2168 
313.5309 
313.8451 



I-; 






1^ 




Area. 


Circum- 
ference. 




97.0 






^ 


7389.8113 


304.7345 


98.0 


.1 


7405.0559 


305.0486 


.1 


.2 


7420.3162 


305.3628 


.2 


.3 


7435.5922 


305.6770 


.3 


.4 


7450.8839 


305.9911 


.4 


.5 


7466.1913 


306.3053 


.5 


.6 


7481.5144 


306.6194 


.6 


.7 


7496.8532 


306.9336 


.7 


.8 


7512.2078 


307.2478 


.8 


.9 


7527.5780 


307.5619 


.9 


100.0 


7853.9816 


314.1593 





Ai'ea. 



7542. 
7558. 
7573. 
7589. 
7604. 
7620. 
7635. 
7651. 
7666, 
7682, 



Circum- 
ference. 



9640 
3656 
7830! 
2161; 
6648; 
1293 
6095' 
1054 
6170 
1444 



307.8761 
308.1902 
308.5044 
308.8186 
309.1327 
309.4469 
309.7610 
310.0752 
310.3894 
310.7035 



LENGTH OF CIRCULAR ARCS. 



Deg. 


In Terms of Radius. 


Min. 


In Terms of Radius. 


Sec. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 


In Terms of Radius. 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 


0.01745 32925 19943 
.03490 65850 39887 
.05235 98775 59830 
.06981 31700 79773 
.08726 64625 99716 
.10471 97551 19660 
.12217 30476 39603 
.13962 63401 59546 
.15707 96326 79490 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 


0.00029 08882 08666 
.00058 17764 17331 
.00087 26646 25997 
.00116 35528 34663 
.00145 44410 43329 
.00174 53292 51994 
.00203 62174 60660 
.00232 71056 69326 
.00261 79938 77991 


0.00000 48481 36811 
.00000 96962 73622 
.00001 45444 10433 
.00001 93925 47244 
.00002 42406 84055 
.00002 90888 20867 
.00003 39369 57678 
.00003 87850 94489 
.00004 36332 31300 



To ascertain the area or circumference of any circle whose diameter is 
a whole number and greater than 100 and less than 1000. Find in the table 
the given diameter, divided by 10 ; the area corresponding multiplied by 100, 
and the circumference corresponding multiplied by 10 will be the area and 
circumference, respectively, sought for. E. g., wanted the area and circum- 
ference of a circle whose diameter is 432. Find in the table the area and 
circumference of a circle whose diameter is 43.2, to be respectively 1465.7415 
and 135.7168; the area and circumference of the given circle are 146,574.45 
and 1857.168, respectively. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



83 



FLOW OF STEAM THROUGH STRAIGHT 

PIPES. 



Initial Gauge 
Pressure in 
Pounds per 
Square Inch. 



1. 

10. 

20. 

30. 

40. 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 
100. 
120. 
150. 



Diaraeiers of Pipes in Inches. 



1 


1^2 


2 


21/2 


3 


4 


5 


6 



Pounds of Steam Carried per Minute with one Pound loss 
of Pressure per 2h0 Diameter length of Pipe. 



1.16 
1.44 
1.70 
1.91 
2.10 
2.27 
2.43 
2.57 
2.71 
2.83 
2.95 
3.16 
3.45 



45 25, 
1531, 
49 36, 
35 



63115, 
.14jl7, 



3023. 
9024. 
50|25. 
50:27. 
00 30. 



8235 
92 37 
96 39 
8541 
3745 



38 46 

45 58 

94 

63 

77 

48 

87 

00 

91 

62 



.85 77, 
.05 95, 
.20 112, 



7275 



76, 
84, 
91, 
97. 
103, 
108, 
113, 
18118, 
87127. 
09138. 



126, 
139, 
150, 
161, 
170. 
179, 
187. 
195, 
209. 
228. 



30 

80 

60 

90 

50 

80 

10 

70 

50 

80 

60 

90 314 

80 343, 



115, 
143. 
168. 
190. 
209. 
226. 
241. 
255. 
269. 
281. 
293. 



211.40 
262.00 
307.80 
346.80 
381.30 



412.20 
440.50 
466.50 
490.70 
513.30 
534.60 
50573.70 
00 625.50 



Diameter of 
Pipe in Inches. 


20 


1 


1^/2 


2 
41 


2\ 

47 


3 


4 


5 


6 


8 


Length of Pipe 
in Diameters 
of Equivalent 
Resistance of 
1 Globe Valve. 


25 


34 


52 


60 


66 


71 


79 



Ascertain the horse-power of any size pipe appearing in 
the above table, by doubling the pounds of steam carried by 
the pipe per minute. 

Ascertain the amount of any other loss of pressure by 
multiplying the tabular figures, for the size pipe in question, 
by the square root of the tabular loss, for the size pipe in 
question. 

Ascertain the flow, with one pound loss of pressure, for 
any length of pipe by dividing 240 by the given length, in 
terms of the diameter, and multiplying the square root of 
this quotient by the tabular figures. 



84 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 

CHIMNEYS. 



•§ so 








Height of Chimney in Feet. 


•i 


sg 






































1^ 


i^ 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


125 


150 


175 


200 


2| 


1^ ss 
























"£ «s 


5S §^ 


^•'' 
cS 

^ 


Commercial Horse-power. 






18 


23 


25 


27 


















0.97 


1.77 


21 


35 


38 


41 


















1.47 


2.41 


24 


49 


54 


58 


62 
















2.08 


3.14 


27 


65 


72 


78 


83 
















2.78 


3.98 


30 


84 


92 


100 


107 


113 














3.58 


4.91 


33 




115 


125 


133 


141 














4.47 


5.94 


36 




141 


152 


163 


173 


182 












5.47 


7.47 


39 




183 


183 


196 


208 


219 












6.57 


8.30 


42 






216 


231 


245 


258 


271 










7.76 


9.62 


48 








311 


330 


348 


365 


389 








10.44 


12.57 


54 








363 


427 


449 


472 


503 


551 






13.51 


15.90 


60 








505 


539 


565 


593 


632 


692 


748 




16.98 


19.64 


66 










658 


694 


728 


776 


849 


918 


981 


20.83 


23.76 


72 










792 


835 


876 


934 


1023 


1105 


1181 


25.08 


28.27 


78 












995 


1038 


1107 


1212 


1310 


1400 


29.73 


33.18 


84 












1163 


1214 


1294 


1418 


1531 


1637 


34.76 


38.48 


90 












1344 


1415 


1496 


1639 


1770 


1893 


40.19 


44.18 


96 












1537 


1616 


1720 


1876 


2027 


2167 


46.01 


50.27 



E = 5:^ = ^ _ 0.6 -y/A. H = 3.33 E \/h. 



l/h 



S=i2i/E + 4. 



D 



13.54 1/^ + 4. h=Q^^ 



H, Horse-power ; /i, height of chimney, in feet ; E, effec- 
tive area, and A, actual area in square feet; D, diameter of 
circular chimney, in inches. The above table and formula 
are based on the assumption that an average consumption 
of five pounds of the coal used per hour will generate one 
horse-power. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 



85 



MEASURES, 

OF L.ENGTH. 



Inches. 


Feet. 


Yards. 


Rods. 


Miles. 


63360 


5280. 


1760. 


320 


1 


198 


16.5 


5.5 


1 




36 


3. 


1. 






12 


1. 








1 













{ 


OF AREA. 








Sq. Inches. 


Sq. Feet. 


Sq. Yards. 


Sq. Rods. 


Acres. 


t 


6272640 

39204 

1296 

144 


27878400. 

43560. 

272.25 

9. 

1. 


3097600. 
4840. 
30.25 
1. 


102400 
160 

1 


640 


1 



DRY. 



Pints. \ 


Quarts. 


Gallons. 


Pecks. 


Bushels. 


Cubic Inches. 


64 


33 


8 


4 


1 


2150. 


16 


8 


2 


1 




537.6 


8 


4 


1 






268.8 


2 


1 








67.2 


1 










33.6 



I.IQUID. 



Gills. 


Pints. 


Quarts. 


Gallons. 


(7«*6*c Inches. 


32 
8 
4 

1 


8 
2 
1 


4 
1 


1 


231. 
57.750 
28.875 
7.218 



CUBIC. 



Inches. 


Feet. 


Yards. 


(7or(^5. 


Perches. 


46656 
1728 


27 
1 


1 


128 Cu. Ft. 


25 Cu. Ft. 



86 



CREOSOTED TIMBER 



MEASURES. 

COMMERCIAL WEIGHT. 



Ounces. 


Pounds. 


Cwis. 


Tons. 


35840. 


2240. 


20. 


1. 


1792. 


112. 


1. 




16. 


1. 







SPECIAL UNITS. 

One palm, 3 inches. 
One hand, 4 inches. 
One span, 9 inches. 
One fathom, 6 feet. 

One cahle length, 720 feet, 120 fathoms. 
One shot, 90 feet. 

One knot, nautical mile, 6086.07 feet. 
One league, 3 knots. 
One section, 640 acres. 
One square acre, 208.71 feet hy 208.71 feet. 
One circular acre, 235.504 feet diameter. 
British Imperial Dry Measures are jq;32 U. S. measures of 
the same name. 
A heaped bushel is IJ times a struck bushel. 
One British Imperial gallon, 277.274 cubic inches. 



Boston, November 8, 1899. 

E. A. BuELL, Esq., President, Norfolk Creosoting Company, 
17 Granby Street, Norfolk, Va. 

Dear Sir: — I am glad to say that in filling my orders for large amounts 
of creosoted material during the last three years, I have found your hand- 
ling of the business very satisfactory. My inspector's reports and the ap- 
pearance of the material agree in representing the treatment as thoroughly 
and honestly done. 

I have great confidence in the endurance of the timber and shall be 
glad to offer you further business whenever I have orders to place. 
Yours truly, 

F. P. McIntyre, Purchasing Agent, 
Mexican Central Railway Company, Limited. 



ITS PREPARATION ANB USES 



87 



FRENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND 
MEASURES. 



Grains per Gramme 


15.432 '>5 


Pounds avoirdupois per 




Kilo 


2.20462 


Tons per tonne 


.984206 


Feet per metre 


3.2808693 


Inches per millimetre... 


.03937043 


Miles per kilo 


.621377 


Square feet per square 




metre 


10 7641 


Square inch per square 




millimetre 


.00155003 


Cubic feet per cubic me- 




tre 


35.3156 


Foot-pounds per kilo- 




gramme 


7.23308 


Pounds per foot per kilo- 




gram metre 


.671963 


Pounds per square foot 




per kilogramme per 




square metre 


.204813 


Pounds per square inch 




per kilogramme per 




square metre 


14.2231 


Pounds per cubic foot 




per kilogrammes per 




cubic metre 


.0062426 



Gramme per grain 0.064799 

Kilos per pound avoirdu- 
pois 453593 

Tonnes per ton 1.01605 

Metres per foot 304797 

Millimetre per inch 25.39977 

Kilos per mile 1.60933 

Square metres per square 

foot 092901 

Square millimetres per 

square inch 645.148 

Cubic metre per cubic 

foot 028316 

Kilogram metre per foot 

per pound 138254 

Kilogrammes per metre 

per pounds per foot 1.48818 

Kilogrammes per square 

metre per pound per 

square foot 4.88252 

Kilogrammes x>er square 

millimetre per pounds 

per square inch 00073 

Kilogrammes per cubic 

metre per pounds per 

cubic foot 16.19 



PHYSICAL AND ELECTRICAL UNITS. 

IMass. — Mass is the measure of quantit}^ in a bodj^ as in- 
dicated b}^ the amount of force requisite for a given amount 
of motion in a given time ; i. c, the mass of any body is the 
measure of its inertia. 

Weight. — Weight is the measure of the force with which 
any body is impelled toward the centre of the earth. 

Dyne. — The C. G. S. Dyne is the measure of a force which, 
applied to a mass of one gram for one second of time, 
imj)arts to it a velocity of one centimeter per second. 

Erg. — The C. G. S. Erg is the unit of work, and in con- 
sequence of energy also. It is the measure of the work 



88 CREOSOTED TIMBER 

done, or of the energy consumed, in exerting a force of one 
dyne. 

Ampere. — The Ampere is the unit of electrical current 
strength, and is the current strength produced by an 
electromotive force of one volt against a resistance of one 
Ohm. 

Ohm. — The Ohm is the electrical unit of resistance, and is 
the resistance offered to the passage of an unvarying elec- 
trical current, at the temperature of melting ice, by a column 
of mercury, 14.4521 grams in mass, of a constant cross- 
sectional area and 1.063 centimeters long. 

Volt. — The Volt is the measure of electromotive force, 
which, applied steadily to a conductor whose resistance is 
one ohm, will produce a current of one ampere. 

Coulomb. — The Coulomb is the unit of quantity, and is 
the measure of the amount of current conveyed by one 
ampere in one second of time. 

Joule. — The Joule is a unit of electrical energy, and is the 
measure of the work done in maintaining a current of one 
ampere against a resistance of one ohm for one second of 
time. 

Farad. — The Farad is the unit of capacity of a condenser 
charged to a potential of one volt with one coulomb. 

Henry. — The Henry is the unit of electrical self-induction, 
and is the measure of the self-induction of a current in 
which the variation of the current, of one ampere per 
second, induces an electromotive force of one volt. 

Watt. — The Watt is the unit of rate of work, the electro- 
motive force being one volt and the current strength one 
ampere. 

Weber. — The Weber, C. G. S., is the unit of flux, other- 
wise called the line of flux. 

Gilbert. — The Gilbert C. G. S. unit of magnetomotive 
force. It is produced by 0.7958 ampere-turns. 

Oersted.— The C G. S. Oersted is the unit of magnetic 
reluctance. 

Gauss.— The C. G. S. Gauss is the unit of flux-density, i.e,, 
one weber per normal square centimeter. 



ITS PREPARATION AND USES 89 

AMORTIZATION TABLES. 

The following tables, I and II, are based on the well-known 
Fernow Formulae for determining the equivalent annual 
charge due to an initial expenditure made now and recur- 
ring each term of n years, and for determining the equiva- 
lent annual charge due to an initial expenditure not now 
occurring but first becoming necessary at the end of n years, 
and then recurring at the end of each term of n years. 

For Table I : 

^~" ^J.O^'^ — 1 
For Table II : 

_ R X O.Qp 

r = Equivalent annual charge. 
R = Initial expenditure. 
p --= Eate of interest. 
n =: Term of years. 

r, the equivalent annual charge, is found from the table, by 
multiplying the actual expenditure, in cents, by the amount 
found under the required period of years and for the desired 
interest rate. 



Wilmington, Del., November 15, 1899. 
The Norfolk Ceeosoting Co., Norfolk, Va. 

Gentlemen : — We desire to express to you our satisfaction with the 
manner in which you have always handled our business. The ties, timber 
and piling that you have creosoted for us have given the best of results. 
We firmly believe that no better treatment, or more effective treatment, 
can be given than yours, under the capable supervision of Mr. Christian. 

Very truly yours, 

Bush & Kayner, 
W holesale Lumber Dealers. 



90 



CREOSOTE!) TIMBER 



% 

H 
O 

O 





O 
CO 


i 


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INDEX. 

Creosoted Work. page 

Aerial Conductor^i 45 

Conductors 45 

Conduits 46 

Contractors' Specifications 15 

Creosote, Scientific Standing of 15 

Cross Arms 45 

Cross Ties 47 

Culverts 47 

Dead Oil of Coal Tar Compounds 19 

Pavement ...., 49 

Piling 43 

Poles— Kailway, Telegraph, Telephone 44 

Railway Work 44 

Sewers 48 

Specifications for Contractors 51 

Telegraph Work 44 

Telephone Work 44 

Underground Work 46, 47, 48 

Preservation of Timber. 

Creosote's Scientific Standing 15 

Norfolk Creosoting Company's Methods 33 

Preface 5 

Teredo, The Destructive 7 

Tables, Miscellaneous Subjects. 

Amortization 89, 90 

Beam Formulte 63 

Beams, Wooden, Ultimate Loads for 73 

Chains, Iron 70 

Chimneys .*.. 87 

Circles, Areas and Circumferences of 74-82 

Circular Areas 82 

Dead Oil of Coal Tar Compounds 19 

Gauges, Wire 72 

Iron Chains 70 

Iron Pipe 67-73 

Manila Rope 70 

Measures, Length, Commercial Weight 85, 86 

Nails and Spikes 68 



92 INDEX 

Tables, Miscellaneous Subjects. — Continued. page 

Pillars, Wooden , 54 

Plate Washers 69 

Railway Trestle 59 

Rope, Manila 70 

Rope, Steel Wire 71 

Saturated Steam, Properties of 66 

Screws 69 

Sheet Metals 68 

Steam, Properties of Saturated 83 

Steam, Flow Through Straight Pipes 66 

Steel Wire Rope 71 

Structural Works, Properties of. 60 

Timber, Round, B. M. Volume 58 

Timber, Sections, Moments of Inertia 61 

Trestle, Wooden, Railway, Approximate Amount of. 59 

Units, Physical and Electrical 87 

Weights and Measures, French and English 87 

Yellow Pine, Specifications, etc 55 



Barrett Manufacturing 
Company 

Land Title Building 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

Largest Distillers in the world 
of COAL TAR and its 
BY-PRODUCTS 

(Roofing Pitch, Paving Composition, 
Asplialtum Cement, Varnish, etc.) 

Also Manufacturers of " Black 
Diamond" Prepared Roofing 

Roofers' & Slaters' Felts 

Insulating Fibres 

Building Papers, Etc. 

Correspondence respectfuUy invited 

All our goods bear this trade-mark 




Rewport Reius 
Sbipbuiiaing and 
DrpDockCo. 

WORKS AT NEWPORT NEWS, VA^ 

(ON HAMPTON ROADS) 

Equipped with a Basin Dry 
Dock capable of docking a 
vessel 600 feet long, draw- 
ing 25 feet of water, at any 
stage of the tide. Repairs 
made promptly and at rea- 
sonable rates. 

SI)iP!i'€tigineBuiiaer$ 

FOR ESTIMATES AND FURTHER 
PARTICULARS, ADDRESS 

C. B. ORCUTT, President 

No. I Broadway, New York 

(ii) 




(iii) 



W. W. CUMME:r, President 

J. CUMMER, Vice-President 

E. C. FOSBURGH, Sec'y. and Manager 

H. J. H0I,I,IST:^R, Treasurer 



THE CUMMER CO. 

NORFOLK, VA. 

MANUFACTURERS OF ALI, KINDS OF 

ROUGH and DRESSED 
KILN-DRIED 

iNorbr) varolipa 



Pi 



ii)e 



ANNUAL CAPACITY, 60,000,000 FEET 

(iv) 



GARRETT-BOCHANAN COMPANY 

3, 5 and 12 DECATUR ST. 

Philadelphia 



MANUFACTURERS OF 



Roofing and Building 
...Papers... 



Goal Tar Products 



SOLE MAKERS OF THE CELEBRATED 



"CANVAS BACK RED ROPE ROOFING" 



The Cheapest and Most Durable Prepared 
Roofing on the Market 

(V) 



ORGANIZED J867 

The Citizens Bank 

OF NORFOLK, YA. 



CAPITAL (PAID IN), $300,000,00 
SURPLUS AND PROFITS, $200,000.00 



WM. H. PETERS, President 
J. W- PERRY, Vice-President 
WALTER H. DOYLE, Cashier 



INTEREST PAID ON TIME DEPOSITS BY SPECIAL 

CONTRACT 

Bills of Exchange issued on all the Principal 
Cities of Europe. Charter authorizes Trust and 
fiduciary Accounts, and to act as Executor, Ad- 
ministrator^ Guardian, Assignee, Receiver, Trustee 
and Agent. 

Lock Boxes for rent in the best appointed 
^Safe Deposit Vaults south of Philadelphia. 

♦♦.DIRECTORS... 

Wm. H. Pktkrs, McD. L. Wre;nn, 

J. W. Pe^rry, John N. Wii.i.iams, 

Geo. C. Rkid, Geo. A. Schmei^z, 

W. Chas. Hardy, Richard H, Baker, 

G. M. Serpei.1., Thos. R. Bori^and, 

WaIvTer H. DoyIvE. 

(vi) 



J he Junis 
cCumber Company 



BALTIMORE, MD. 
NORFOLK, VA. 

MANUFACTURERS OF 



^"""' ""' dumber 



%nplaned 



Large Modern Saw Mills and Planing Mills at 
Norfolk, Virginia 

Planing Mills at Baltimore, Maryland 



North Carolina Pine, Cypress 
and Poplar 

FOR FOREIGN SHIPMENT 



WB ARE IN THE MARKET FOR 



Mahogany and Cedar Logs 



(vii) 



J. B. SANFORD, President 

W. B. BROOKS, Jr., Vice-President 

J. F. SINTON, Secretary and Treasurer 
M . H. T AYI^OR, Manager 
W. H. DORSKY, Engineer 



Oaprord o x3rook^ 
Loir)par)y 

Dred^ii)^, Dock, Bridge ai)d Railroad 
Cor)bracbors 

No. 21 Soubb Gay Sh. 
BaltiiT)ore^ Md. 



BRANCH OFFICE, BAI^IvKNTINE BLDG. 

NORFOIvK, VA. 

(viii) 



PocaltODtas Sikeless H 



The Standard Fuel of the United States Navy 

The only Fuel that has been 

Officially Endorsed by the Governments of 

Great Britain and the United States 



It is SMOKKIyKSS, and contains more heat units to 
the pound of coal and will evaporate more water, hold the 
fire longer, and keep up steam better than any other coal. 
It makes few clinkers and burns to a fine light ash. 

It is easy for the engineers and firemen and economical 
for the purchaser. 



Castner, Curran Sa Bullitt 

Sole Agents 

328 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. 
70 Kilby Street, Boston, Mass. 
I Broadway, New York. 

Citizens Bank Building, Norfolk, Va. 
Neave Building, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
Terry Building, Roanoke, Va. 

Old Colony Building, Chicago, 111. 

4 Fenchurch Avenue, London, Kngland. 

(ix) 



Magnesia ' Carbonate 

Very light and bulky, in fine powder 
for manufacturing purposes 

pure Quality 

Made at the new factory of the 

Hmerican 
JMagnesia 
Company 

plymoutb jMccting, pa. 



For Insulating, Boiler and Steam Pipe Covering, Printing 
Ink Making, for Lithographers' Use, Paint and Glass Manu- 
facturers. Also for Plastic Making in Fireproof Buildings 



FOR PARTICULARS APPLY TO 



]Scw York Office - loo CdiUiam Street 

(x) 



W. Edwin Peregoy, President E. A. Robertson, Secretary 

W. W. Robertson, Treasurer and Manager 



'Phones 

So. States, 447 
So. Bell, 1013 



Pocahontas Lumber Co, 



WHOLESALE 



LUMBER. LATHS 



SHINGLES AND PILING 



Citizens Bank Building 



Norfolk, Va. 

(xi) 



NICHOLS BROS. 

74 Cortlandt Street 49 Commercial Place 
NEW YORK NORFOLK, VA. 



LOGGERS, SHIPPERS 
AND EXPORTERS OF 

PINE, OAK AND SPRUCE 

PILES 



DOCK AND BRIDGE TIMBER 

(xii) 



City National Bank 

Norfolk, Va. 



United States Depositary 

City Depositary and 

United States Court Depositary 

Capital Stock ...... $200,000 

Surplus Profits . ?0,000 

A. E. KRISE, Pres. 
C. A. NASH, Vice-Pres. B. W- LEIGH, Cashier. 

DIRECTORS 
BARTON MEYERS, JOHN L. ROPER, 

British Consul. President of John L, Roper 

Lumber Co. 

R. A. DODSON, W. T. SIMCOE, 

New Atlantic Hotel. Of Russell & Simcoe, Dry 

Goods. 

C. W. FENTRESS, W. H. MINOR, 

Of C. W. Fentress & Co., Capitalist. 

Wholesale Butter and Cheese. 

FLOYD HUGHES, JOHN SHERIDAN, 

Of Whitehurst & Hughes, Of Black, Sheridan & Wilson, 

Attorneys. Baltimore. 

S. L. FOSTER, D. F. DONAVAN, 

Of S. L. Foster & Son, Roof- Capitalist, 

ing and Sidewalks. 

We solicit your business and correspondence 
Buy and sell foreign exchange 

(xiii) 



SUPPOSE 

SUPPOSE your house is on fire, what is the easiest way 
to summon the Fire Department? 

SUPPOSE a member of jour household is suddenly and 
dangerously ill, immediate attendance of a 
physician means life or death, — how most 
quickly obtain that attendance? 

SUPPOSE any one of the many emergencies when 
police aid is desirable or vitally necessary,— 
how may these guardians of life and property 
be instantly notified ? 

SUPPOSE unexpected guests arrive, the larder is low 
and the dinner hour near, —how connect with 
the butcher, the baker and the confectioner 
and hurriedly gather the supplies that shall 
make the dinner a credit to the housekeeper ? 

SUPPOSE you wish to gather a group of guests for an 
evening to do honor to an occasion or a 
friend, — how most conveniently communi- 
cate with them and receive their acceptances 
or regrets ? 

SUPPOSE you are interested in the Stock Market or 
commercial matter of any sort, but desire 
to stop at your country house for a few 
days, — how keep in constant touch with Wall 
Street and the market centres? 

SUPPOSE you want seats for the play, a box for the 
opera, a carriage for a drive, to engage 
places at a restaurant, — how in incredibly 
short time arrange it all ? 

SUPPOSE you are obliged to travel, leaving a member 
of your family ill at home, — how can you 
receive n^^ws at any station from Boston to 
Omaha— from Montreal to Key West? 

SUPPOSE you are worried and flurried and bored by 
the petty details of living — the marketing, 
the shopping and the annoyance of the 
hustling streets, — how sit in your office or 
library and press a button which shall do it 
all for you ? 

SUPPOSE you would know the answer to these ques- 
tions. Here it is : The greatest Luxury, 
Convenience and Necessity of the century ; 

TELEPHONE SERVICE 

THE NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY TELEPHONE COMPANY 
SI Willoughb; St., Brooklyn, N. Y. 

(xiv) 



Ryland & Brooks 21 s 
Lumber Co. . . . 



. GAY ST, 
Baltimore^ Md* 
U. S. A. 



MANUFACTURERS OF 



North Carolina Pine & 



Special attention given to EXPORT orders 

Orders taken for all Kinds Bill Stuff 

Pitch Pine^ SBort Leaf Pine, etc* 

n. I.. MAYKR WM. M. WHAI^EY 

MHYER 5 CQ. 

Manufacturers, Agents 
Importers and Dealers in 

Machinery and Supplies 

74 COMMERCIAL PLACE 

NORFOLK, VA. 



Saws, Rafting Gear, Bolts, Nuts, 'Washers 

Engines and Boilers, Pumps, Injectors, Syphons, Hose 

Tools, Shaftings and Pulleys, Iron Pipe, Fittings, 

Valves, Cocks, Etc, 

Belting, Packing, Waste, Iron and Steel, Nails, Oils, Cordage 

(xv) 



E. B. WARREN & CO. 

Chemical Works. 
Paving Cements and Roofing Materials. 

27th AND H STREETS, N.W., 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 

JAPAN-BLACK VARNISH 

Years of continual use have demonstrated its superiority. 

25 and 30 cts* per gaL, barrel inclttded (f*o»b, Washington^ D* €♦) 

Unexcelled for Roofs, Railings, Smokestacks, and all iron work subject to 

wear and exposure. Also, Woodwork (wagons, carts, etc.) 

and all kinds of Brickwork. Elastic and durable. 

Enamel Paint for Hearths. 

PAVING AND ROOFING PITCHES; 

Different Grades and Superior Quality. 

TARRED ROOFING PAPERS 

l-Tph/f 2-ply^ 3-ply^ Cheapest and Best« 

LIGHT AND HEAVY OILS OF COAL-TAR 

TOMS CREEK COAL 

Unsurpassed for STEAM Purposes 

Produces a maximum amount of steam, with a minimum 
of ash and clinker. Equally good for Railway, Manufac- 
turing or Marine uses. Bears transportation well ; reaches 
destination in nice lumpy condition, and retains its life and 
strength even when exposed to tropical weather. 

Try TOMS CREEK COKE for Foundry and Furnace Uses 

Shipping Pointt Lambert^s Pointy Norfolk^ Va. 

For further information^ address 

TRIGG & WILMER, Agents for 

Virginia Tron^ Coal and Coke Co* 

Norfolk, Va*, U* S* A. 

(xvi) 



KSTABLISHED 1861 



THOMAS C. BASSHOR & CO. 

OFFICK AND STORK 

28 Light Street 

BOir^KR WORKS 

Paca and Bush Sts., and B. & O. R. R. 
BALTIMORE, MD,, U. S. A. 

EUIIvDERS OF 

Boilers, Stacks and Tanks 

STEAM HEATING 

High - Pressure Steam Piping 



A SPECIAI^TY 



DEALERS IN 



Machinists' and Steamboat Supplies 

AGENTS FOR 

Fischer Self-Oiling Automatic Engines 
Atlas Engines for General Use 

Cylinders Bored in Place 

(xvii) 



NATIONAL 
COAL TAR COMPANY 

JOO WILLIAM STREET 

NEW YORK CITY 



COAL TAR PRODUCTS 
CREOSOTE OIL 

(Dead Oil of Coal Tar) 

ROOFING MATERIALS 



PAVING MATERIALS 



BUILDING PAPERS 



CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED 
WITH RESPONSIBLE PARTIES 



(xviii) 



The Henry Waike Co. 

88 Water Street, corner Ccmmerce 
NORFOLK, VA. 

manufacturers' agknt and 
deaIvE:r in 



HARDWARE, RAILROAD, STEAMBOAT 

ENGINEER and MILL SUPPLIES 

SHIP CHANDLERY 
PAINTS, OILS, ETC. 

A full stock always on hand of all material pertaining to 
the Equipment and Running of Plants 



"Giant "and 
"Giant Planer" 



Leather Belting 



"Giant," "Granite" 
"Shawmut" 



Rubber Belting 



ALL SIZES TO 18-INCH ALWAYS ON HAND 

AGENTS FOR 

KNOWIvBS' STEANI PUIvlPS 

MACHINERY REPAIRED 

(xix) 



A. D. FRENCH 

44 BROAD STREET 

NEW YORK CITY 

U. S. A. 

Manufacturer and "Wholesale Dealer in 

Long Leaf Yellow Pine 

Octagonal Poles 

Railroad Ties, Cross Arms 

Insulator Pins, Brackets 

or any kind of Lumber for Teleg^raph 
or Trolley Work# 



Creosoted Wooden Poles 

are cheaper and better than iron 
ones for tropical work* 

Send for Circular 




Jill. 



llillill 

p>"':>ii| 
iiiiiiiii 



PHI 



iillliiil 



>iPI»l 




I can save you money when in the market for creosoting. 
Inquiries cheerfully answered. 

(XX) 



LIDGERWOOD 

HOISTING ENGINES 

are built to gauge on the duplicate part system 
QUICK DELIVERY ASSURED 

Slandard ZlZ%\"' 

For PILE DRIVING 
BUILDING 
MINING 
RAILROADS 
CONTRACTORS and 
GENERAL HOISTING 
PURPOSES 



"OVER 

16,000 

IN USE 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC HOISTS 

Gableways, Hoisting and Conveying Devices 

FOR 

Mining, Quarrying, Logging, Dam Construction, Etc. 




SEND FOR LATEST CATAI.OGUE 



LIDGERWOOD IWFG. CO 

96 Liberty St., NEW YORK 



(xxi) 




OSCAR F. SMITH, President JAMES CAI^KR, Vice-President 

J NO. T. GIBBS, Secretary and Treasurer 




River, Harbor and Dock 
Improvements 

217 WATER STREET 

Corner Roanoke Square 



NORFOLK, VA. 



Bell Telephone 231 



Southern States Telephone 35 




£ 



« 7 S 1 



(xxii) 










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